Assessing Music Perception in Young Children: Evidence for and Psychometric Features of the M-Factor

Given the relationship between language acquisition and music processing, musical perception (MP) skills have been proposed as a tool for early diagnosis of speech and language difficulties; therefore, a psychometric instrument is needed to assess music perception in children under 10 years of age, a crucial period in neurodevelopment. We created a set of 80 musical stimuli encompassing seven domains of music perception to inform perception of tonal, atonal, and modal stimuli, in a random sample of 1006 children, 6–13 years of age, equally distributed from first to fifth grades, from 14 schools (38% private schools) in So Paulo State. The underlying model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis. A model encompassing seven orthogonal specific domains (contour, loudness, scale, timbre, duration, pitch, and meter) and one general music perception factor, the “m-factor,” showed excellent fit indices. The m-factor, previously hypothesized in the literature but never formally tested, explains 93% of the reliable variance in measurement, while only 3.9% of the reliable variance could be attributed to the multidimensionality caused by the specific domains. The 80 items showed no differential item functioning based on sex, age, or enrolment in public vs. private school, demonstrating the important psychometric feature of invariance. Like Charles Spearman's g-factor of intelligence, the m-factor is robust and reliable. It provides a convenient measure of auditory stimulus apprehension that does not rely on verbal information, offering a new opportunity to probe biological and psychological relationships with music perception phenomena and the etiologies of speech and language disorders

Access and reward in the information society: regulating the collective management of copyright

Copyright Collecting Societies have proliferated, with more than 150 organisations now collecting and distributing licensing fees for rights in music, literary, audio-visual and graphic works within the European Union. From the perspective of Competition Law, collecting societies may be viewed as price-fixing cartels under Art. 81 EC, and as vulnerable to challenges under Art. 82 EC (i.e. abusing a dominant position as the sole provider of a management infrastructure to right holders, and as the only supplier of licences to copyright users). Yet, collective administration of copyright has important policy benefits: (i) From a user perspective, collecting societies may offer a single point licence providing easy and wide access to copyright protected contents. This can be a solution to innovation issues in an information society where major right holders otherwise may dictate problematic terms. (ii) Creators at the margins of commercial viability have access to a mechanism of collective bargaining against major rights exploiters, such as publishers, record labels and broadcasters. This may support a culturally diverse society. This article develops principles for regulating the collective management of copyrights from a critique of EC competition jurisprudence

Do instrumental music students hear differently ? : implications for students who have a disability

It should be no surprise to suggest that the better a child listens, the better is their likelihood of classroom success. Within the existing body of research, it is relatively easy to locate evidence that not only is auditory discrimination a key predictor of children's classroom success, but that instrumental music training can enhance children's auditory discrimination skills. Optimizing auditory discrimination is as equally important for children who have a disability as it is for those who do not have a disability. However, the essential problem of (virtually all) the available literature examining music training and its associated non-musical benefits, is that it rarely identifies whether any children who had a disability were included in the study’s experimental samples. This limitation is problematic. While the findings of many studies that investigate auditory discrimination and instrumental music training may well be relevant for children who have a disability, it simply cannot be known with certainty whether they are or not. Therefore, specifically identifying children who had a disability within the participant sample of this study was the critical aspect differentiating this project from the way other, similar studies have been typically run and reported. In all, this study involved 185 eight-year-old children drawn from four schools in south-east Queensland, Australia. Of these, 131 children received instrumental music training (the intervention), while 54 others were not involved in any form of instrumental training over the same 18-week period. A parent survey was used to determine whether individual children who were involved in this study had a disability. Auditory discrimination testing of all the study's participants was performed both before and after the intervention, and scores from each of these tests compared. This study found that children receiving instrumental music training demonstrated significantly greater improvements to their auditory discrimination than did their peers who were not involved in instrumental music training. Critically, this association between instrumental music training and better auditory discrimination performance remained constant regardless of whether the children in this study had a disability. Moreover, this study also found that the effect size for the association between instrumental music training and improvements to auditory discrimination skill was greatest for the children who had a disability and were involved in regular inschool instrumental music classes learning alongside their peers who did not have a disability

The Influence of Training Method on Tone Colour Discrimination

This research addresses the question of whether one of two training methods, identification by continuous adjustment (ICA) or identification by successive approximation (ISA), is more effective in training students using a technical ear training program (TETP). No known empirical studies have examined the effectiveness of either training method within frequency spectrum-based student-targeted TETPs. Preliminary work involved the development of appropriate tests of students’ tone colour discrimination ability in isolation, on tasks sufficiently different from those encountered in TETPs. The tests were then deployed in a pilot study within a pre/post-training scenario using two groups of audio engineering students, one of which undertook an ICA and the other an ISA version of a TETP. These preliminary results indicated the suitability of a test that featured pairwise comparisons of synthetic percussive timbres to show differences in performance between the two training groups. This test was subsequently administered repeatedly in a full-scale study at regular intervals throughout a web-based TETP, in addition to before and after training. Results of the full-scale study showed the individual differences scaling (INDSCAL)-derived stimulus spaces for both groups were similar prior to undertaking the TETP. The ISA group’s post-training results were almost identical to their pre-training results, whereas the ICA groups’ post-training results showed minor, but insignificant differences. Although the full-scale study found insignificant differences in performance between training groups, the preliminary results suggest that the deployment of a pre/post-training test is an effective measure of the training method’s influence on students if the test features a task that is significantly different from those trained on in the TETP

An analysis of influences on choral performance adjudicators’ rating decisions of choral performance

The purpose of this study was to (a) examine influences on choral music adjudicators’ rating decisions of choral performance quality and (b) to see if differences existed among those influences by participants’ years of adjudication experience and academic training (degree focus). Part One of the study included eight randomly selected participants (N = 8), comprised of choral adjudication experts, to aid in the construction of the data collection instrument. Part Two of the study included a convenience sample (N = 71) comprised of choral music performance adjudicators within the southeastern United States.For the primary purpose, the Choral Adjudicator Preference Scale (CAPS), a researcher-constructed data-gathering instrument, was developed to determine influences on choral adjudicators’ rating decisions of choral performance. A Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha measure of internal consistency was calculated to establish reliability of the CAPS data collection instrument. A coefficient of .934 was found for the CAPS, which indicated a high level of internal consistency. Validity for the data-gathering instrument was established through three sources, (a) an open-ended questionnaire sent to the eight choral adjudicators, (b) a thorough review of the related literature and (c) verification by choral activities chairpersons among the southeastern states. For research question one (What factors influence adjudicators’ decisions when adjudicating choirs?) a principal component analysis revealed 23 items that coalesced among four factors of influence: (a) the ensemble’s performance, (b) visual aspects, (c) extra-musical aspects, and (d) the conductor’s contributions. These four factors accounted for 61.49 percent of the total variance in participants’ responses. For the secondary purpose, a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance was calculated to determine if differences existed among factors of influence by participants’ years of adjudication experience and academic training (degree focus). For research question two (Do differences exist among adjudicators’ influences on rating decisions by years of adjudication experience?) a significant main effect was found for the factors, F (3, 189) = 216.581, p = .000, ?2 = .775; however, there was no main effect for years of adjudication experience, nor an interaction effect among the factors and years of adjudication experience. For research question three (Do differences exist among adjudicators’ influences on rating decisions by academic training?) a significant main effect was found for the factors, F (3, 201) = 195.326, p = .000, ?2 = .745; however, there was no main effect for academic training, nor an interaction effect among the factors and academic trainingA discussion of the influences on choral adjudicators’ rating decisions was presented. Recommendations for future research were suggested regarding music performance adjudication, influences on rating decisions, and characteristics of evaluators

The effect of violin, keyboard, and singing instruction on the spatial ability and music aptitude of young children

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of violin, keyboard, and singing instruction on spatial ability and music aptitude of children ages four to seven years. Specifically, this research attempted to determine: (a) whether formal music learning in the violin, keyboard and singing conditions enhanced children's spatial ability and music aptitude, and (b) whether children's spatial ability and music aptitude differed among these learning conditions. In addition, this study sought to examine the relationships among children's age, their development of spatial ability, and music aptitude in the given music instruction. A pretest-posttest two by three factorial design was employed in the study. Children (N=88) ages four to seven years were randomly assigned to one of three instructional groups (violin, keyboard, or singing) and received 45 minutes of music instruction four times a week for 16 days. Spatial reasoning skills were measured using two subtests, the Object Assembly and the Block Design of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-III, while music aptitude was measured using the Primary Measures of Music Audiation or the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation. An ANOVA with repeated measures was used to analyze children's mean scores on spatial abilities and music aptitude. Using an alpha level of .05, results indicated that the violin and keyboard groups significantly improved on spatial-temporal reasoning over four weeks of instruction. The spatial-temporal reasoning scores of 4-5 year olds significantly increased from the pretest to posttest while the scores of 6-7 year olds remained statistically constant. Regarding music aptitude, the tonal aptitude scores of 4-5 year olds singing group significantly increased over four weeks of music instruction. No statistically significant differences were found on the spatial recognition and rhythm aptitude scores among the three instructional groups for either age level. The study concluded that (a) violin and keyboard instruction might influence the spatial-temporal reasoning of young children, (b) younger children's spatial-temporal reasoning ability might be more enhanced by music instruction than those of older children, and (c) singing instruction appears to help young children develop their tonal aptitude. Pedagogical implications for music education were discussed

Is Vivaldi smooth and takete? Non-verbal sensory scales for describing music qualities

Studies on the perception of music qualities (such as induced or perceived emotions, performance styles, or timbre nuances) make a large use of verbal descriptors. Although many authors noted that particular music qualities can hardly be described by means of verbal labels, few studies have tried alternatives. This paper aims at exploring the use of non-verbal sensory scales, in order to represent different perceived qualities in Western classical music. Musically trained and untrained listeners were required to listen to six musical excerpts in major key and to evaluate them from a sensorial and semantic point of view (Experiment 1). The same design (Experiment 2) was conducted using musically trained and untrained listeners who were required to listen to six musical excerpts in minor key. The overall findings indicate that subjects\u2019 ratings on non-verbal sensory scales are consistent throughout and the results support the hypothesis that sensory scales can convey some specific sensations that cannot be described verbally, offering interesting insights to deepen our knowledge on the relationship between music and other sensorial experiences. Such research can foster interesting applications in the field of music information retrieval and timbre spaces explorations together with experiments applied to different musical cultures and contexts

The MMN as a viable and objective marker of auditory development in CI users

In the present article, we review the studies on the use of the mismatch negativity (MMN) as a tool for an objective assessment of cochlear-implant (CI) functioning after its implantation and as a function of time of CI use. The MMN indexes discrimination of different sound stimuli with a precision matching with that of behavioral discrimination and can therefore be used as its objective index. Importantly, these measurements can be reliably carried out even in the absence of attention and behavioral responses and therefore they can be extended to populations that are not capable of behaviorally reporting their perception such as infants and different clinical patient groups. In infants and small children with CI, the MMN provides the only means for assessing the adequacy of the CI functioning, its improvement as a function of time of CI use, and the efficiency of different rehabilitation procedures. Therefore, the MMN can also be used as a tool in developing and testing different novel rehabilitation procedures. Importantly, the recently developed multi-feature MMN paradigms permit the objective assessment of discrimination accuracy for all the different auditory dimensions (such as frequency, intensity, and duration) in a short recording time of about 30 min. Most recently, such stimulus paradigms have been successfully developed for an objective assessment of music perception, too. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Peer reviewe

Evaluation of Music Performance: Computerized Assessment Versus Human Judges.

Ph.D. Thesis. University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa 2018