St. Luke’s College of Nursing, Tokyo, Japan: The intersections of an Episcopal Church Mission Project, Rockefeller Foundation Philanthropy, and the Development of Nursing in Japan, 1918-1941.

ST. LUKE’S COLLEGE OF NURSING, TOKYO, JAPAN: THE INTERSECTIONS OF AN EPISCOPAL CHURCH MISSION PROJECT, ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION PHILANTHROPY, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING IN JAPAN, 1918-1941. Kathleen M. Nishida, MSN, CNM Patricia D’ Antonio PhD, RN, FAAN The leadership at St. Luke’s International Hospital and its nurse training program were very vocal about being a state of the art medical facility that sought through its nurse training program to raise the quality of nursing education and practice in Japan. They very clearly sought to reproduce American styled nursing education at St. Luke’s. To achieve this they brought nurses from the United States to teach and manage the nurse training program and brought Japanese nurses from Japan to the United States for post graduate studies and observation experiences. This study examines the tensions that exist at the intersections of a foreign Episcopal Church mission project, Rockefeller Foundation philanthropy, and the development of nursing in Japan. This study uses historical methodology and is a transnational study. A theory of Critical Transnational Feminism (CTF) is used to consider issues of race, class, and gender at St. Luke’s International Hospital and School of Nursing in Tokyo, Japan in the early twentieth century. The collaboration between Japanese nurses, physicians, and board members with American missionary nurses and doctors to lead and develop a world class medical center and school of nursing provides an opportunity to probe issues of power based on gender, race, and class. The CTF lens calls attention to the tendency of transnational history to often be Western-centric and has provided a framework to go deeper into an equitable representation of transnational studies. This study has found that lay medical missionaries prioritized their professional goals over the Christianizing goals of the church. The study reveals that power in the transnational space was a shifting and contested quality. Although Japanese and American actors at St. Luke’s talked about cultural diplomacy the relationships that they had were still hierarchical across race, gender and professional boundaries. Nursing at St. Luke’s represented progressive professionalization movements for women for both Japanese and American nurses. Nurses who traveled had elite social opportunities because of the associations that they had in their international work. Finally, St. Luke’s was uniquely positioned to develop public health nursing in Japan and they had significant impact in that area

Ordering Spaces, Making Places: Women’s Uses of Non-Domestic Spaces in Tokyo, Japan, 1868–1937

This dissertation explores Japanese women’s uses of non-domestic spaces in the modern period (1868–1945), focusing on the transformations that were occurring in the new capital city of Tokyo. After the 1868 Meiji Restoration, a modern government took over in place of the Tokugawa shogunate, the feudal military government that had ruled Japan for nearly three centuries, based on a hereditary status-based system. The fall of Tokugawa social order liberated Japanese people from the principle that John W. Hall famously called “rule by status.” Yet, it also complicated the ways in which the society was organized. Because the status system had defined where people lived and visited on an everyday basis, the mechanisms for ordering spaces in cities also drastically transformed after the fall of the Tokugawa regime. In this time of instability and negotiation, women began venturing outside of the familiar spaces of home. At the same time, various male stakeholders with social, political, and economic power – such as national government officials and corporate managers – employed multiple strategies to establish a new socio-spatial order across the city of Tokyo. It was men who, for the most part, designated which spaces were to be used and how, according to what they deemed appropriate. Yet, I argue that women played limited, but surprisingly active roles in contesting these mechanisms. Through three case studies of incidents that involved women venturing into non-domestic spaces, I show how women worked with and against these forces, inventing alternative uses of non-domestic spaces of their own. To examine some of the forces propelling women’s increasing presence outside of the home, this dissertation builds on two methods for understanding cities and architecture: an approach that examines urbanity as a process and the ethnography of architecture. Using the urbanity-as-a-process approach, this dissertation interrogates modern Tokyo as an ongoing, complex project that was constructed by multiple stakeholders and forces, rather than designed merely by professionals, such as architects, planners, and policy makers. Drawing on the ethnography of architecture approach, the chapters also privilege interpretations that emphasize the uses and perceptions of specific spaces, rather than their forms and construction. Each case study focuses on what was at the time a new kind of urban space, whose spatial mechanisms for gendering were still flexible and unstable. The first case study traces the development of the campus for Tsuda College – a women-only school in Tokyo – from 1900 to 1931. It shows how Tsuda College students, teachers, and administrators contested the exclusionary system of higher education in Japan by identifying and scraping up alternative resources. The second case study looks into the process by which two women’s organizations – Tōyō Eiwa Girls’ School Alumnae Association and Japan Women’s Association for Education – expanded their spatial networks for socializing between 1873 and 1912, focusing on their uses of parks. The national government intended to push violent and noisy men, who met in the parks for political gatherings, out of the parks to achieve their purpose of having regular gatherings. This chapter demonstrates how socializing women took advantage of the national government’s need to achieve their purpose of having regular gatherings. The third case study explores how managers at the flagship location of Mitsukoshi Department Store used female employees as what I call “sensory capital” from 1900 to 1924. This chapter demonstrates that managers constantly manipulated the bodies of saleswomen, through complex strategies to ensure their coexistence with male employees at work and separation outside work. It also shows how saleswomen subverted the systematic management of their bodies. Taking all these case studies together, I suggest that it was not only women who were gauging their changing place in the city and in Japanese society after the collapse of the Tokugawa social order; this process was also significant for the elite men who established most of the gendering systems. In doing so, this dissertation complicates traditional historical narratives of architecture and urban spaces in modern Tokyo; namely, it reconceptualizes the modernization of the built environment in Tokyo as an unstable, inconsistent process of exploration and negotiation, rather than a perfectly calculated process of progress and development. More broadly, by using materials that have not traditionally been deemed as architectural evidence, this dissertation offers a model for how to excavate the spatial interactions of under-documented, marginalized populations. By demonstrating that people can make architectural contributions even without engaging in the physical construction of buildings, the dissertation promotes a more democratic view of architecture and its significance in everyday life

Innovative Tokyo

This paper compares and contrasts Tokyo's innovation structure with the industrial districts model and the international hub model in the literature on urban and regional development. The Tokyo model embraces and yet transcends both industrial districts and international hub models. The paper details key elements making up the Tokyo model-organizational knowledge creation, integral and co-location systems of corporate R&D and new product development, test markets, industrial districts and clusters, participative consumer culture, continuous learning from abroad, local government policies, the national system of innovation, and the historical genesis of Tokyo in Japan's political economy. The paper finds that the Tokyo model of innovation will continue to evolve with the changing external environment, but fundamentally retains its main characteristics. The lessons from the Tokyo model is that openness, a diversified industrial base, the continuing development of new industries, and an emphasis on innovation, all contribute to the dynamism of a major metropolitan region.Labor Policies,Environmental Economics&Policies,Public Health Promotion,ICT Policy and Strategies,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,ICT Policy and Strategies,Environmental Economics&Policies,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,Innovation

Textile Society of America- Seventh Biennial Symposium 2000 WHOLE ISSUE

Approaching Textiles, Varying Viewpoints Proceedings of the Seventh Biennial Symposium of the Textile Society of America Santa Fe, New Mexico 2000 The papers are unedited and reproduced as submitted. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without written permission from the author. Students and researchers wishing to cite specific authors are encouraged to contact those individuals, as many of these papers represent work in progress, or work which has been committed for publication elsewhere. Contents Prefac

Victorian Japan in Taiwan: Transmission and Impact of the ‘Modern’ upon the Architecture of Japanese Authority, 1853-1919.

This research assesses how contact with Europe and America from 1853 created a new notion of the modern in Japan and colonial Taiwan, through exploring the architectural expressions of Japanese architects. Taking a detailed look at relevant theories of the modern, and the geo-political, governmental and intellectual histories of Meiji Japan, I analyse how Japan used architecture in their nation-building process, and later the role of architecture in building colonial modernity in Taiwan. The study explores how colonial buildings crystallised Japan’s fledgling modernity, cumulating in an extensive case study of the Taiwan Governor-General’s Office, focusing on how the building spatially embedded hierarchical relationships, and how through mastery of European architectural forms it became an artefact of techno-cultural superiority. Through these analyses I find that whilst Japan’s modernity was genuine (in that it was rationally innovative and fashionably reflected up-to-date forms and technologies) the conditions that produced it were sufficiently different that Japan effectively created a split in the idea of what it meant to be modern. Whilst modernity in Europe occurred over a long period, driven by the Enlightenment and the growth of imperialism, in Japan the primary driver was the desire to be seen as civilised, which required instrumental utilisation of reason (and later colonisation) to achieve. Japan’s architectural modernity was intrinsically tied to the state’s drive towards Great Power status, dominance over East Asian neighbours and the reframing of a national Japanese cultural identity as intrinsically superior. These diverse aims led to a unique cultural gap between public and private life developing in Japan, and to Japan politically and culturally splitting off from East Asia. This thesis looks in detail at the story of kindai (modern) architecture in Japan, through exploring a number of themes. First, how translated concepts entered Japan through Josiah Conder, the first Professor of Architecture in Japan, who instituted a new ranking of building types that placed indigenous architecture below European masonry. Second, how political centralisation led to the creation of a modern Japanese architecture style promoted by Conder’s successor TATSUNO Kingo, which became a national style through its use first in Japan and later more extensively in Japan’s colonies. Third, due to the foundational splits in the basis for architectural education in Japan, new social boundaries were created through the Governor-General’s Office which allowed colonial architects to shore their sense of superiority whilst avoiding Orientalist rackets. In spite of this the building remains equivocal: the modern split between Japanese administration and residential architecture even applied to the Governor-General, and implied Euro-American authority remains through the necessary spatial and stylistic appropriations. As the first study that traces the formation of modern architecture in Taiwan to Japan and further back to Victorian Britain, this thesis provides a trans-disciplinary contribution to the field

Bringing the Japanese Occupation of Korea to High School Classrooms

Bringing the Japanese Occupation of Korea to High School Classrooms is a set of three units on the occupation, designed using the Inquiry Design Model from the C3 Teachers. Each unit corresponds to a major time period in the occupation; unit one covers 1876-1919, unit two 1919-1931, and unit three 1931-1945. This project aimed to provide a way to teach the occupation in a manner friendly to high school students and presents an opportunity to align content more fully with the philosophy of social studies education. Finally, it presents a way to teach East Asian history actually from an East Asian perspective

Neo-onnagata: professional cross-dressed actors and their roles on the contemporary Japanese stage

Neo-Onnagata: Professional Cross-dressed Actors and Their Roles on the Contemporary Japanese Stage explores the representation of male and female gender in the contemporary Japanese theatre. I particularly discuss a specialized subset of Japanese actor: the neo-onnagata, a contemporary theatre counterpart to Japan\u27s highly stylized classical kabuki tradition of cross-dressed representation. This dissertation represents my attempt to provide these basic aims: to situate the contemporary Japanese cross-dresser in Japanese tradition, to show how cross-dressing acts as a sharp social commentary and mirror, and to introduce some little-represented cross-dressing actors of the contemporary Japanese stage to the academic community at large. In addition, I examine the conservative gender role system of Japan and demonstrate how the neo-onnagata challenge traditional performance and sex roles. Particularly, I seek to showcase neo-onnagata as expanding opportunities for male actors and as new gendered models for men

Cross-dressing Shakespeare : contemporary Japanese performances and adaptations

Malgré le fait que beaucoup de travail ait été réalisé autour du phénomène « Shakespeare japonais », cette dissertation se positionne autrement dans cette conversation en examinant les performances et adaptations de Shakespeare au Japon par le théâtre féminin Takarazuka Revue. Ceci est accompli au moyen d’une analyse critique des traditions du théâtre Kabuki, de l’histoire prémoderne et postmoderne du Japon et de la culture populaire japonaise. Cette dissertation se concentre sur les œuvres de Shakespeare et sur la manière dont celles-ci permettent au Japon d’examiner ses propres réalités sociale, culturelle, historique et politique. Pour ce faire, j’examine donc les pratiques de théâtres prémodernes de l’Angleterre et leur emploi du « boy actor » pour jouer les rôles féminins et je compare ce phénomène à celui du théâtre Kabuki et à son utilisation d’acteurs « onnagata » pour jouer des rôles semblables. Par la suite, j’aborde le fait que le théâtre de Takarazuka approprie ses traditions et subvertit les normes en n’ayant que des actrices pour jouer les rôles masculins et féminins dans ses performances. Le Takarazuka est souvent vu comme étant un défenseur d’idées patriarchales au Japon à cause de ses politiques internes. Cependant, selon moi, ce théâtre offre également une forme d’émancipation pour les femmes et d’autant plus lorsqu’il est combiné avec les œuvres de Shakespeare. Shakespeare est donc analysé dans ce contexte par lequel le Japon peut examiner son passé ainsi que ses idées contemporaines sur le genre, la sexualité, et la féminité. J’étudie donc cinq performances de Shakespeare qui suivent le développement de la cause féminine à travers les époques, en commençant par l’époque Edo jusqu’à l’ère postmoderne. Le théâtre au Japon a évolué de son état premier initialement réservé à la noblesse pour éventuellement être accessible au peuple commun par l’intermédiaire de la religion. En alliant ces traditions et cette histoire culturelle avec Shakespeare, ainsi que son influence positive sur le théâtre japonais, je démontre que Shakespeare et le Japon sont reliés historiquement et dans les arts à travers les performances et adaptations de Takarazuka.While much work has been done on the topic of Japanese Shakespeare, particularly as it relates to the playwright’s influence over traditional theatre arts since the Meiji era, this dissertation breaks new ground by looking at the all-female Takarazuka Revue’s adaptations and performances of Shakespeare with a close examination of Kabuki traditions, Japanese early modern history, and popular culture. This dissertation highlights how Shakespeare’s works act as a critical lens through which Japan examines its own social, cultural, historical, and political realities. To achieve this, I examine England’s early modern practice of employing boy actors to play the roles of female characters and highlight the similarities with Japan’s Kabuki and its use of onnagata actors to enact the same role on stage. From this point, I draw links to Takarazuka’s appropriation of these traditions and its subversion of norms through the employment of an all-female cast in all of its performances. While Takarazuka has often been regarded as a reinforcer of patriarchal values due to its strict inner politics, I argue that it also offers a form of emancipation for women in theatre when combined with Shakespeare’s plays. Shakespeare is analysed in this context to show how his works act as vehicles through which Japan’s historical past can be examined and its contemporary ideas of gender, sexuality, and womanhood can be considered. I look at five distinct performances of Shakespeare to explore the development of female agency in Japan, spanning the centuries from the Edo era to a postwar society in which Shakespeare is re-Westernized for a modern world. Theatre in Japan has always held a special place in how it evolved from being religion-driven, to aristocratic, and then accessible to the masses. By combining this rich tradition with Shakespeare and examining his positive influence over the revival of these arts, Shakespeare and Japan become intrinsically linked throughout history and in the arts as shown through Takarazuka’s adaptations and performances