Power Spectrum Analysis of Polarized Emission from the Canadian Galactic Plane Survey

Angular power spectra are calculated and presented for the entirety of the Canadian Galactic Plane Survey polarization dataset at 1.4 GHz covering an area of 1060 deg$^2$. The data analyzed are a combination of data from the 100-m Effelsberg Telescope, the 26-m Telescope at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, and the Synthesis Telescope at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, allowing all scales to be sampled down to arcminute resolution. The resulting power spectra cover multipoles from $\ell \approx 60$ to $\ell \approx 10^4$ and display both a power-law component at low multipoles and a flattening at high multipoles from point sources. We fit the power spectrum with a model that accounts for these components and instrumental effects. The resulting power-law indices are found to have a mode of 2.3, similar to previous results. However, there are significant regional variations in the index, defying attempts to characterize the emission with a single value. The power-law index is found to increase away from the Galactic plane. A transition from small-scale to large-scale structure is evident at $b= 9^{\circ}$, associated with the disk-halo transition in a 15$^{\circ}$ region around $l=108^{\circ}$. Localized variations in the index are found toward HII regions and supernova remnants, but the interpretation of these variations is inconclusive. The power in the polarized emission is anticorrelated with bright thermal emission (traced by H$\alpha$ emission) indicating that the thermal emission depolarizes background synchrotron emission.Comment: Accepted to ApJ; 17 page

Unusually Luminous Giant Molecular Clouds in the Outer Disk of M33

We use high spatial resolution (~7pc) CARMA observations to derive detailed properties for 8 giant molecular clouds (GMCs) at a galactocentric radius corresponding to approximately two CO scale lengths, or ~0.5 optical radii (r25), in the Local Group spiral galaxy M33. At this radius, molecular gas fraction, dust-to-gas ratio and metallicity are much lower than in the inner part of M33 or in a typical spiral galaxy. This allows us to probe the impact of environment on GMC properties by comparing our measurements to previous data from the inner disk of M33, the Milky Way and other nearby galaxies. The outer disk clouds roughly fall on the size-linewidth relation defined by extragalactic GMCs, but are slightly displaced from the luminosity-virial mass relation in the sense of having high CO luminosity compared to the inferred virial mass. This implies a different CO-to-H2 conversion factor, which is on average a factor of two lower than the inner disk and the extragalactic average. We attribute this to significantly higher measured brightness temperatures of the outer disk clouds compared to the ancillary sample of GMCs, which is likely an effect of enhanced radiation levels due to massive star formation in the vicinity of our target field. Apart from brightness temperature, the properties we determine for the outer disk GMCs in M33 do not differ significantly from those of our comparison sample. In particular, the combined sample of inner and outer disk M33 clouds covers roughly the same range in size, linewidth, virial mass and CO luminosity than the sample of Milky Way GMCs. When compared to the inner disk clouds in M33, however, we find even the brightest outer disk clouds to be smaller than most of their inner disk counterparts. This may be due to incomplete sampling or a potentially steeper cloud mass function at larger radii.Comment: Accepted for Publication in ApJ; 7 pages, 4 figure

Minimal HCN emission from Molecular Clouds in M33

Since HCN emission has been shown to be a linear tracer of ongoing star formation activity, we have searched for HCN (J = 1->0) emission from known GMCs in the nearby galaxy M33. No significant HCN emission has been found along any of the lines of sight. We find two lines of sight where CO-to-HCN integrated intensity ratios up to 280, nearly a factor of 6 above what is found in comparable regions of the Milky Way. Star formation tracers suggest that the HCN-to-star formation rate ratio (L_HCN/M_SFR) is a factor of six lower than what is observed in the Milky Way (on average) and local extragalactic systems. Simple chemical models accounting for the sub-solar N/O ratio suggest that depletion cannot account for the high CO-to-HCN ratios. Given HCN formation requires high extinction (A_V > 4), low metallicity may yield reduced dust shielding and thus a high CO/HCN ratio. The turbulence and structure of GMCs in M33 are comparable to those found in other systems, so the differences are unlikely to result from different GMC properties. Since lower CO-to-HCN ratios are associated with the highest rates of star formation, we attribute the deficits in part to evolutionary effects within GMCs.Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRA

Hierarchical Star-Formation in M33: Fundamental properties of the star-forming regions

Star-formation within galaxies appears on multiple scales, from spiral structure, to OB associations, to individual star clusters, and often sub-structure within these clusters. This multitude of scales calls for objective methods to find and classify star-forming regions, regardless of spatial size. To this end, we present an analysis of star-forming groups in the local group spiral galaxy M33, based on a new implementation of the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) method. Unlike previous studies which limited themselves to a single spatial scale, we study star-forming structures from the effective resolution limit (~20pc) to kpc scales. We find evidence for a continuum of star-forming group sizes, from pc to kpc scales. We do not find a characteristic scale for OB associations, unlike that found in previous studies, and we suggest that the appearance of such a scale was caused by spatial resolution and selection effects. The luminosity function of the groups is found to be well represented by a power-law with an index, -2, similar to that found for clusters and GMCs. Additionally, the groups follow a similar mass-radius relation as GMCs. The size distribution of the groups is best described by a log-normal distribution and we show that within a hierarchical distribution, if a scale is selected to find structure, the resulting size distribution will have a log-normal distribution. We find an abrupt drop of the number of groups outside a galactic radius of ~4kpc, suggesting a change in the structure of the star-forming ISM, possibly reflected in the lack of GMCs beyond this radius. (abridged)Comment: 12 pages, 16 figures, accepted MNRA

The Perils of Clumpfind: The Mass Spectrum of Sub-structures in Molecular Clouds

We study the mass spectrum of sub-structures in the Perseus Molecular Cloud Complex traced by 13CO (1-0), finding that $dN/dM\propto M^{-2.4}$ for the standard Clumpfind parameters. This result does not agree with the classical $dN/dM\propto M^{-1.6}$. To understand this discrepancy we study the robustness of the mass spectrum derived using the Clumpfind algorithm. Both 2D and 3D Clumpfind versions are tested, using 850 $\mu$m dust emission and 13CO spectral-line observations of Perseus, respectively. The effect of varying threshold is not important, but varying stepsize produces a different effect for 2D and 3D cases. In the 2D case, where emission is relatively isolated (associated with only the densest peaks in the cloud), the mass spectrum variability is negligible compared to the mass function fit uncertainties. In the 3D case, however, where the 13CO emission traces the bulk of the molecular cloud, the number of clumps and the derived mass spectrum are highly correlated with the stepsize used. The distinction between "2D" and "3D" here is more importantly also a distinction between "sparse" and "crowded" emission. In any "crowded" case, Clumpfind should not be used blindly to derive mass functions. Clumpfind's output in the "crowded" case can still offer a statistical description of emission useful in inter-comparisons, but the clump-list should not be treated as a robust region decomposition suitable to generate a physically-meaningful mass function. We conclude that the 13CO mass spectrum depends on the observations resolution, due to the hierarchical structure of MC.Comment: 5 pages, 3 figures. Accepted for publication in ApJ Letter

Giant Molecular Clouds in the Local Group Galaxy M33

We present an analysis of the systematic CO(2-1) survey at 12" resolution covering most of the local group spiral M 33 which, at a distance of 840 kpc, is close enough that individual giant molecular clouds (GMCs) can be identified. The goal of this work is to study the properties of the GMCs in this subsolar metallicity galaxy. The CPROPS (Cloud Properties) algorithm (Rosolowsky & Leroy 2006) was used to identify 337 GMCs in M 33, the largest sample to date in an external galaxy. The sample is used to study the GMC luminosity function, or mass spectrum under the assumption of a constant N(H2)/ICO ratio. We find that n(L)dL = K*L^(-2.0\pm0.1) for the entire sample. However, when the sample is divided into inner and outer disk samples, the exponent changes from 1.6 \pm 0.2 for the centre 2 kpc to 2.3 \pm 0.2 for galactocentric distances larger than 2 kpc. Based on the emission in the FUV, Halpha, 8mu, and 24mu bands, each cloud was classified in terms of its star forming activity - no star formation, embedded, or exposed star formation (visible in FUV and Halpha). At least one sixth of the clouds had no (massive) star formation, suggesting that the average time required for star formation to start is about one sixth of the total time for which the object is identifiable as a GMC. The clouds without star formation have significantly lower CO luminosities than those with star formation, whether embedded or exposed, presumably related to the lack of heating sources. Taking the cloud sample as a whole, the main non-trivial correlation was the decrease in cloud CO brightness (or luminosity) with galactocentric radius. The complete cloud catalog, including CO and HI spectra and the CO contours on the FUV, Halpha, 8mu, and 24mu images is presented in the appendix.Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics. Language correction and change to figure 1. Figure 6 was shifted and cropped in the previous versio

An Ammonia Spectral Atlas of Dense Cores in Perseus

We present ammonia observations of 193 dense cores and core candidates in the Perseus molecular cloud made using the Robert F. Byrd Green Bank Telescope. We simultaneously observed the NH3(1,1), NH3(2,2), CCS (2_1 -> 1_0) and CC34S (2_1 -> 1_0) transitions near 23 GHz for each of the targets with a spectral resolution of dv ~ 0.024 km/s. We find ammonia emission associated with nearly all of the (sub)millimeter sources as well as at several positions with no associated continuum emission. For each detection, we have measured physical properties by fitting a simple model to every spectral line simultaneously. Where appropriate, we have refined the model by accounting for low optical depths, multiple components along the line of sight and imperfect coupling to the GBT beam. For the cores in Perseus, we find a typical kinetic temperature of T=11 K, a typical column density of N(NH3)~ 10^14.5 /cm^2 and velocity dispersions ranging from sigma_v = 0.07 km/s to 0.7 km/s. However, many cores with velocity dispersions > 0.2 km/s show evidence for multiple velocity components along the line of sight.Comment: 19 pages; Accepted to ApJS; version with high resolution figures available at http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/COMPLETE/papers/nh3-paper1.pdf ; online data at http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/COMPLETE/data_html_pages/GBT_NH3.htm

The Gas Temperature of Starless Cores in Perseus

In this paper we study the determinants of starless core temperatures in the Perseus molecular cloud. We use NH3 (1,1) and (2,2) observations to derive core temperatures (T_kin) and data from the COMPLETE Survey of Star Forming Regions and the c2d Spitzer Legacy Survey for observations of the other core and molecular cloud properties. The kinetic temperature distribution probed by NH3 is in the fairly narrow range of 9 - 15 K. We find that cores within the clusters IC348 and NGC1333 are significantly warmer than "field" starless cores, and T_kin is higher within regions of larger extinction-derived column density. Starless cores in the field are warmer when they are closer to class O/I protostars, but this effect is not seen for those cores in clusters. For field starless cores, T_kin is higher in regions in which the 13CO linewidth and the 1.1mm flux from the core are larger, and T_kin is lower when the the peak column density within the core and average volume density of the core are larger. There is no correlation between T_kin and 13CO linewidth, 1.1mm flux, density or peak column density for those cores in clusters. The temperature of the cloud material along the line of sight to the core, as measured by CO or far-infrared emission from dust, is positively correlated with core temperature when considering the collection of cores in the field and in clusters, but this effect is not apparent when the two subsamples of cores are considered separately.Comment: Accepted to ApJ; 13 pages, including 3 tables and three figure

A Water Maser and Ammonia Survey of GLIMPSE Extended Green Objects (EGOs)

We present the results of a Nobeyama 45-m water maser and ammonia survey of all 94 northern GLIMPSE Extended Green Objects (EGOs), a sample of massive young stellar objects (MYSOs) identified based on their extended 4.5 micron emission. We observed the ammonia (1,1), (2,2), and (3,3) inversion lines, and detect emission towards 97%, 63%, and 46% of our sample, respectively (median rms ~50 mK). The water maser detection rate is 68% (median rms ~0.11 Jy). The derived water maser and clump-scale gas properties are consistent with the identification of EGOs as young MYSOs. To explore the degree of variation among EGOs, we analyze subsamples defined based on MIR properties or maser associations. Water masers and warm dense gas, as indicated by emission in the higher-excitation ammonia transitions, are most frequently detected towards EGOs also associated with both Class I and II methanol masers. 95% (81%) of such EGOs are detected in water (ammonia(3,3)), compared to only 33% (7%) of EGOs without either methanol maser type. As populations, EGOs associated with Class I and/or II methanol masers have significantly higher ammonia linewidths, column densities, and kinetic temperatures than EGOs undetected in methanol maser surveys. However, we find no evidence for statistically significant differences in water maser properties (such as maser luminosity) among any EGO subsamples. Combining our data with the 1.1 mm continuum Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey, we find no correlation between isotropic water maser luminosity and clump number density. Water maser luminosity is weakly correlated with clump (gas) temperature and clump mass.Comment: Astrophysical Journal, accepted. Emulateapj, 24 pages including 24 figures, plus 9 tables (including full content of online-only tables