Mapping Road Infrastructure in Developing Countries Applying Remote Sensing and GIS : The Case of the Taita Hills, Kenya

Road transport and infrastructure has a fundamental meaning for the developing world. Poor quality and inadequate coverage of roads, lack of maintenance operations and outdated road maps continue to hinder economic and social development in the developing countries. This thesis focuses on studying the present state of road infrastructure and its mapping in the Taita Hills, south-east Kenya. The study is included as a part of the TAITA-project by the Department of Geography, University of Helsinki. The road infrastructure of the study area is studied by remote sensing and GIS based methodology. As the principal dataset, true colour airborne digital camera data from 2004, was used to generate an aerial image mosaic of the study area. Auxiliary data includes SPOT satellite imagery from 2003, field spectrometry data of road surfaces and relevant literature. Road infrastructure characteristics are interpreted from three test sites using pixel-based supervised classification, object-oriented supervised classifications and visual interpretation. Road infrastructure of the test sites is interpreted visually from a SPOT image. Road centrelines are then extracted from the object-oriented classification results with an automatic vectorisation process. The road infrastructure of the entire image mosaic is mapped by applying the most appropriate assessed data and techniques. The spectral characteristics and reflectance of various road surfaces are considered with the acquired field spectra and relevant literature. The results are compared with the experimented road mapping methods. This study concludes that classification and extraction of roads remains a difficult task, and that the accuracy of the results is inadequate regardless of the high spatial resolution of the image mosaic used in this thesis. Visual interpretation, out of all the experimented methods in this thesis is the most straightforward, accurate and valid technique for road mapping. Certain road surfaces have similar spectral characteristics and reflectance values with other land cover and land use. This has a great influence for digital analysis techniques in particular. Road mapping is made even more complicated by rich vegetation and tree canopy, clouds, shadows, low contrast between roads and surroundings and the width of narrow roads in relation to the spatial resolution of the imagery used. The results of this thesis may be applied to road infrastructure mapping in developing countries on a more general context, although with certain limits. In particular, unclassified rural roads require updated road mapping schemas to intensify road transport possibilities and to assist in the development of the developing world.Tieliikenteellä ja -infrastruktuurilla on keskeinen merkitys kehitysmaissa. Tiestön kattavuudessa, kunnossa, tienpidossa ja kartoituksessa on puutteita, jotka rajoittavat taloudellista ja sosiaalista kehitystä. Tämä tutkimus keskittyy tieinfrastruktuurin nykytilan tutkimiseen ja kartoitukseen Taita Hillsin alueella Kaakkois-Keniassa, sekä tiekartoituksen mahdollisuuksien arviointiin yleisesti kehitysmaissa. Tutkimus on osa Helsingin yliopiston maantieteen laitoksen TAITA-projektia. Tutkimusalueen tieinfrastruktuuria tutkitaan kaukokartoitus- ja paikkatietomenetelmien avulla. Tutkimuksen pääaineistona ovat vuoden 2004 digitaaliset oikeaväri-ilmakuvat, joista muodostetaan ilmakuvamosaiikki. Lisäaineistona ovat SPOT väärävärisatelliittikuva vuodelta 2003, tiepintojen spektrometrimittaukset, olemassa olevat kartta-aineistot sekä aihetta käsittelevä kirjallisuus. Tiestö tulkitaan ilmakuvamosaiikin kolmelta testialueelta pikselipohjaisella ohjatulla luokituksella, objekti-orientoiduilla ohjatuilla luokituksilla sekä visuaalisella tulkinnalla. SPOT kuvalta testialueiden tiestö tulkitaan visuaalisesti. Toisen objekti-orientoidun luokituksen tuloksesta tiestön keskilinjat irrotetaan automaattisella vektoroinnilla. Lopuksi tieverkko kartoitetaan koko ilmakuvamosaiikin alueelta parhaiksi havaituilla menetelmillä ja aineistolla. Spektrometrimittauksien ja kirjallisuuden avulla tarkastellaan eri tiepintojen heijastusarvoja ja teiden spektraalisia ominaisuuksia ja tuloksia verrataan testattujen tulkintamenetelmien tuloksiin. Yhteenvetona voidaan sanoa, että tieverkon luokittelu ja irrottaminen on digitaalisilla menetelmillä vaikeaa ja tulokset epätarkkoja ilmakuva-aineiston korkeasta spatiaalisesta resoluutiosta huolimatta. Visuaalinen tulkinta ja digitointi on toistaiseksi yksinkertaisin, tarkin ja validein tutkituista menetelmistä. Tietyillä tiepinnoilla on koostumuksen ja rakennusmateriaalien takia samankaltaiset heijastusominaisuudet muun maanpeitteen- ja maankäytön kanssa, mikä vaikuttaa etenkin digitaalisten tulkintamenetelmien tuloksiin. Teiden kartoitusta vaikeuttaa myös runsas kasvillisuus, puiden latvuskerros, pilvet, varjot, heikko kontrasti ympäristöön ja teiden kapeus suhteessa käytetyn aineiston spatiaaliseen resoluutioon. Tämän tutkimuksen tuloksia ja menetelmiä voidaan soveltaa tietyin rajoituksin myös laajempaan, kehitysmaiden tiekartoituksen kontekstiin. Erityisesti maaseutujen luokittelemattomat tiet ovat ajantasaisen tiekartoituksen tarpeessa tieliikenteen tehostamiseksi ja kehityksen edesauttamiseksi kehitysmaissa

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Digital Declaration Site Map Submissions for Additional Protocol Article 2.a.(iii)

States with additional protocols [1] to comprehensive safeguards agreements in force are required under Article 2.a.(iii) to submit to the IAEA a map for each site. As the current guidelines [2] do not specify a special format for the map submission, they are typically delivered in a variety of formats. Using modern geographic information systems (GIS) to assist with the site map creation and annual updates, a joint Member State Support Programme (MSSP) task on Digital Declaration Site Maps (DDSM) is investigating how the submission procedures could be improved in line with new Information Technology (IT) infrastructure and software developments at the IAEA. Specifically, this includes the Protocol Reporter 3 (PR3) and the Geospatial Exploitation System (GES) software. This paper provides an overview of some of the activities under the MSSP task, including the typical submission process beginning with the creation of an operator’s site map through the submission process cycle for the annual updates using Protocol Reporter or the Commission's Additional Protocol Editor (CAPE) software. To demonstrate how site maps are created by operators and how these new procedures might benefit operators, State or regional authorities (SRA) and the IAEA, this paper will document some of the common challenges in converting site maps from paper maps to digital GIS data formats. It will also address the preparation of site entries and declarations using the Protocol Reporter software for the submission to the IAEA

Using a Web Based Geographic Information System to Create and Submit Digital Declaration Site Maps for the Additional Protocol 2.a(iii)

States with additional protocols [1] to comprehensive safeguards agreements in force are required under Article 2.a.(iii) to submit to the IAEA a map for each site. A special format for the map submission is neither prescribed in the Additional Protocol (AP) for Article 2.a.(iii), nor in the current guidelines [2]. Since the first adoption of the Additional Protocol, advances in mapping technology provide new means for submitting site maps. For Euratom members such as Germany, a new submission process will need to conform to both IAEA and Euratom standards. A joint Member State Support Programme task on Digital Declaration Site Maps (DDSM) has already demonstrated the viability of submitting site maps digitally, with geospatial data intact. A next step in this pilot project is to evaluate the technical changes required to implement a new submission process using a secure, web-based Geographic Information System (GIS) for a few selected sites in Germany. The data conversion procedure varies at each site in Germany due to data origin and current map submission procedures in place. This is due in part to the various methods in which the map data was initially created and subsequently maintained. Some site operators continue to use paper maps designed in the 1970s while others have updated their map data technology in varying degrees during the past decades. Modern server-based GIS portals hold the potential to assist site operators in updating their site maps and maintaining changes. This paper details some of the efforts required to modernize the site map updating and submission processes. The submission of maps as part of declarations by the current Commission’s Additional Protocol Editor (CAPE) software as well as by new AP input software of the IAEA, Protocol Reporter 3 (PR3), will be discussed

State Provided GIS Data Sources for Treaty Verification

The IAEA’s Division of Information Management regularly uses geographic information forassessment of correctness and completeness of States’ declarations, which is essential tosoundly draw safeguards conclusions. The data model guidelines (1) for providing informationset forth in the Model Additional Protocol (AP) may also provide for other verification regimeswith a proven, real-world example when designing criteria for geographic information providedby States parties. Within the IAEA, a joint Member State Support Programme task on DigitalDeclaration Site Maps has already demonstrated the viability of submitting declaration sitemaps digitally in a spatial format. IAEA’s new input system for AP declarations, ProtocolReporter 3, supports the integration of digital maps. A next step in this pilot project is to evaluatethe technical changes required to implement a new submission process using a secure,web-based Geographic Information System (GIS) for a few selected sites in Germany. ModernGIS portals hold the potential to assist in sharing information and enhancing collaboration withininternational verification organizations or between organizations and State parties. 1. TheIAEA’s 2004 Guidelines and Format for Preparation and Submission of Declarations Pursuant toArticles 2 and 3 of the Model Protocol Additional to Safeguards Agreements, Service Series 1

Digital Declaration Site Map Submissions for Additional Protocol Article 2.a.(iii)

States with additional protocols [1] to comprehensive safeguards agreements in force are required under Article 2.a.(iii) to submit to the IAEA a map for each site. As the current guidelines [2] do not specify a special format for the map submission, they are typically delivered in a variety of formats. Using modern geographic information systems (GIS) to assist with the site map creation and annual updates, a joint Member State Support Programme (MSSP) task on Digital Declaration Site Maps (DDSM) is investigating how the submission procedures could be improved in line with new Information Technology (IT) infrastructure and software developments at the IAEA. Specifically, this includes the Protocol Reporter 3 (PR3) and the Geospatial Exploitation System (GES) software. This paper provides an overview of some of the activities under the MSSP task, including the typical submission process beginning with the creation of an operator’s site map through the submission process cycle for the annual updates using Protocol Reporter or the Commission's Additional Protocol Editor (CAPE) software. To demonstrate how site maps are created by operators and how these new procedures might benefit operators, State or regional authorities (SRA) and the IAEA, this paper will document some of the common challenges in converting site maps from paper maps to digital GIS data formats. It will also address the preparation of site entries and declarations using the Protocol Reporter software for the submission to the IAEA