Occurrence of Fungi of Public Importance in Rodents Trapped along and inside Grain Storage Facilities in Mbeya Municipal, Tanzania.

This work was supported by the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Rodent Pest Management and Biosensor Technology Development (ACE IRPM and BTD) at the Institute of Pest Management of the Sokoine University of Agriculture.   Abstract Rodents act as agents for the dispersal of pathogenic entities including fungi and enable their colonization in new areas. They interact with the human environment which acts as a route for the transmission of pathogens. A total of 210 rats were trapped in and along the storage facilities in selected wards in Mbeya city. Fresh fecal samples were collected from the intestines by dissecting the abdominal part of the rodent to obtain pellets. Samples were kept in clean envelopes and preserved at -20 0C at Mbeya National Research Institute (NIMR) for further laboratory analysis. Fungi were isolated by culturing in selective media and identification was done by colony morphology. Further confirmation of the isolated Aspergillus flavus was done by nested PCR to confirm the presence flR the gene in the isolates. Aflatoxigenicity of the isolated A. flavus was tested with a controlled experiment in which non-contaminated maize kernels were inoculated with the fungal spores and incubated for up to 15 days and accumulation of the aflatoxin analyzed by indirect competitive ELISA. Aspergillus fumigatus was the dominant fungal specie from the cultured samples, with a prevalence of 26% followed by Aspergillus niger and Fusarium species, both with a prevalence of 9%, Aspergillus flavus 3% and Aspergillus ochraceus 1%.  Indirect competitive ELISA was performed on 10 maize samples that were infected with A. flavus isolates, 10 maize samples free from isolates contamination, and 4 pure isolates of A. flavus to check whether the isolates were potential producers of aflatoxins. The four pure isolates had a high concentration of aflatoxin compared to the samples contaminated with A. flavus isolates. These findings justify that rodents harbor pathogenic fungi in their intestinal tracts and act as dispersal agents of the fungi to foods and other human and animal premises. Effective control measures should therefore be applied in protecting foods and premises from rodents, especially mice and rats to minimize risks of disease spread. Keywords: Pathogenic fungi, Rodents, Aspergillosis, dispersal, and mycotoxin-producing fungi. DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/109-05 Publication date:July 30th 202

Assessment of Bacterial Contamination in Herbal Medicine Products Vended in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania

Traditional medicines are widely used in Tanzania; however, the microbiological safety of herbal medicine products (HMPs) is unknown. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine microbial levels and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from HMPs vended in Morogoro Municipality. Fifty samples of HMPs were collected from vendors in six wards in the municipality. Bacterial contamination was determined through total viable count and bacterial isolation while susceptibility to the selected antimicrobials was determined by agar disc diffusion method. About 88% of the tested HMPs significantly (p<0.05) had higher total bacterial counts than WHO recommended levels. Ten percent of HMPs were contaminated with the pathogenic E. coli and 8% with S. aureus. The isolated bacteria were only susceptible to ciprofloxacin but were resistant to the rest of the tested antimicrobials at standard doses. Unhygienic handling practices and limited safety knowledge by the HMPs vendors was also observed. Use of the unregulated but vended HMPs may put the users at risk of acquiring infections with pathogenic and antimicrobial resistant bacteria that portends increased treatment challenges

A Decade-Long Change in the Elevational Distribution of Non-Volant Small Mammals on Mount Meru, Tanzania

Understanding species distribution across elevational gradients is crucial for developing conservation strategies for montane biotic systems. A survey of small mammals was conducted on Mount Meru at six elevations, ranging between 1500 m and 3650 m. A total of 803 small mammal individuals, including 2 shrew species and 13 rodent species, were documented. Of these, Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni were endemic on Mount Meru. Species richness was highest at mid-elevations, which is in line with the global pattern for small mammals. Prior to our study, the most complete data on small mammals on Mount Meru was collected in 2009. Our study provides an opportunity to show how small mammal elevational distribution has changed, over the last decade. We found six species (Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, Cricetomys ansorgei, and Montemys delectorum), which were not documented in 2009, but did not find Otomys tropicalis. Interestingly, the community composition at higher elevations in 2021 resembles that at lower elevations in 2009, suggesting that small mammal species have moved their range upward over time. Climate change could be a factor associated with the distributional shift found

Population dynamics and breeding patterns of Mastomys natalensis Smith 1932 in irrigated rice in eastern Tanzania

Mulungu, L.S., Ngowo, V., Mdangi, M., Katakweba, A.S., Tesha, P., Mrosso, F.P., Mchomvu, M

Leptospira Serovars for Diagnosis of Leptospirosis in Humans and Animals in Africa: Common Leptospira Isolates and Reservoir Hosts

The burden of leptospirosis in humans and animals in Africa is higher than that reported from other parts of the world. However, the disease is not routinely diagnosed in the continent. One of major factors limiting diagnosis is the poor availability of live isolates of locally circulating Leptospira serovars for inclusion in the antigen panel of the gold standard microscopic agglutination test (MAT) for detecting antibodies against leptospirosis. To gain insight in Leptospira serovars and their natural hosts occurring in Tanzania, concomitantly enabling the improvement of the MAT by inclusion of fresh local isolates, a total of 52 Leptospira isolates were obtained from fresh urine and kidney homogenates, collected between 1996 and 2006 from small mammals, cattle and pigs. Isolates were identified by serogrouping, cross agglutination absorption test (CAAT), and molecular typing. Common Leptospira serovars with their respective animal hosts were: Sokoine (cattle and rodents); Kenya (rodents and shrews); Mwogolo (rodents); Lora (rodents); Qunjian (rodent); serogroup Grippotyphosa (cattle); and an unknown serogroup from pigs. Inclusion of local serovars particularly serovar Sokoine in MAT revealed a 10-fold increase in leptospirosis prevalence in Tanzania from 1.9 % to 16.9 % in rodents and 0.26% to 10.75 % in humans. This indicates that local serovars are useful for diagnosis of human and animal leptospirosis in Tanzania and neighbouring countries

The social biography of antibiotic use in smallholder dairy farms in India

Background Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been identified as one of the major threats to global health, food security and development today. While there has been considerable attention about the use and misuse of antibiotics amongst human populations in both research and policy environments, there is no definitive estimate of the extent of misuse of antibiotics in the veterinary sector and its contribution to AMR in humans. In this study, we explored the drivers ofirrational usage of verterinary antibiotics in the dairy farming sector in peri-urban India. Methods and materials The study was conducted in the peri-urban belts of Ludhiana, Guwahati and Bangalore. A total of 54 interviews (formal and non-formal) were carried out across these three sites. Theme guides were developed to explore different drivers of veterinary antimicrobial use. Data was audio recorded and transcribed. Analysis of the coded data set was carried out using AtlasTi. Version 7. Themes emerged inductively from the set of codes. Results Findings were presented based on concept of ‘levels of analyses’. Emergent themes were categorised as individual, health systems, and policy level drivers. Low level of knowledge related to antibiotics among farmers, active informal service providers, direct marketing of drugs to the farmers and easily available antibiotics, dispensed without appropriate prescriptions contributed to easy access to antibiotics, and were identified to be the possible drivers contributing to the non-prescribed and self-administered use of antibiotics in the dairy farms. Conclusions Smallholding dairy farmers operated within very small margins of profits. The paucity of formal veterinary services at the community level, coupled with easy availability of antibiotics and the need to ensure profits and minimise losses, promoted non-prescribed antibiotic consumption. It is essential that these local drivers of irrational antibiotic use are understood in order to develop interventions and policies that seek to reduce antibiotic misuse

Genetic diversity and risk factors for the transmission of antimicrobial resistance across human, animals and environmental compartments in East Africa: a review.

BACKGROUND The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) present a challenge to disease control in East Africa. Resistance to beta-lactams, which are by far the most used antibiotics worldwide and include the penicillins, cephalosporins, monobactams and carbapenems, is reducing options for effective control of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The World Health Organization, Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Organization for Animal Health have all advocated surveillance of AMR using an integrated One Health approach. Regional consortia also have strengthened collaboration to address the AMR problem through surveillance, training and research in a holistic and multisectoral approach. This review paper contains collective information on risk factors for transmission, clinical relevance and diversity of resistance genes relating to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing (ESBL) and carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) across the human, animal and environmental compartments in East Africa. MAIN BODY The review of the AMR literature (years 2001 to 2019) was performed using search engines such as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Google and Web of Science. The search terms included 'antimicrobial resistance and human-animal-environment', 'antimicrobial resistance, risk factors, genetic diversity, and human-animal-environment' combined with respective countries of East Africa. In general, the risk factors identified were associated with the transmission of AMR. The marked genetic diversity due to multiple sequence types among drug-resistant bacteria and their replicon plasmid types sourced from the animal, human and environment were reported. The main ESBL, MRSA and carbapenem related genes/plasmids were the CTX-Ms (45.7%), SCCmec type III (27.3%) and IMP types (23.8%), respectively. CONCLUSION The high diversity of the AMR genes suggests there may be multiple sources of resistance bacteria, or the possible exchange of strains or a flow of genes amongst different strains due to transfer by mobile genetic elements. Therefore, there should be harmonized One Health guidelines for the use of antibiotics, as well as regulations governing their importation and sale. Moreover, the trend of ESBLs, MRSA and carbapenem resistant (CAR) carriage rates is dynamic and are on rise over time period, posing a public health concern in East Africa. Collaborative surveillance of AMR in partnership with regional and external institutions using an integrated One Health approach is required for expert knowledge and technology transfer to facilitate information sharing for informed decision-making

A Decade-Long Change in the Elevational Distribution of Non-Volant Small Mammals on Mount Meru, Tanzania

Understanding species distribution across elevational gradients is crucial for developing conservation strategies for montane biotic systems. A survey of small mammals was conducted on Mount Meru at six elevations, ranging between 1500 m and 3650 m. A total of 803 small mammal individuals, including 2 shrew species and 13 rodent species, were documented. Of these, Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni were endemic on Mount Meru. Species richness was highest at mid–elevations, which is in line with the global pattern for small mammals. Prior to our study, the most complete data on small mammals on Mount Meru was collected in 2009. Our study provides an opportunity to show how small mammal elevational distribution has changed, over the last decade. We found six species (Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis, Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, Cricetomys ansorgei, and Montemys delectorum), which were not documented in 2009, but did not find Otomys tropicalis. Interestingly, the community composition at higher elevations in 2021 resembles that at lower elevations in 2009, suggesting that small mammal species have moved their range upward over time. Climate change could be a factor associated with the distributional shift found

Situation analysis and recommendations on antibiotic use and resistance in Tanzania

Antibiotics are the ‘miracle drugs’ of the 20th century. They made possible great progress in turning many bacterial infections into illnesses rather than death sentences. Along with vaccines, they have transformed death in infancy and childhood from an ever-present danger into a rare event. Remarkably, Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin, warned of resistance in the 1930s. He made what may have been the first plea for antibiotic stewardship—use penicillin only when necessary and do not ‘under-dose’. Unfortunately, the world has used penicillin and the rest of the available antibiotics, developed mainly in the 1940s and 1950s, at an ever-increasing rate, both when they are needed and when they are not, in human beings and other animals. The result is that today many antibiotics have lost their effectiveness against common bacterial infections and antibiotic resistance continues to increase in most countries before it has even been recognized as a major problem. Antibiotic resistance is no longer a concern for the distant future but is a pressing issue, both globally and in Tanzania. Data on antibiotic resistance in Tanzania is scarce, but even in the 1990s, resistance to antibiotics in common use, such as ampicillin, tetracycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, was significant. As part of global effort to preserve the effectiveness of antibiotics, the Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership (GARP)-Tanzania aims to develop policy recommendations to govern prudent use of antibiotics. This situation analysis is a first step, creating a baseline for what is known and identifying the important information gaps to be addressed in order to create responsible and effective recommendations for policymakers to consider. The aim is not to withhold antibiotics when they can save lives and health. Ample evidence—in the form of infant and child deaths from pneumonia—warns that many people have no access. The aim is to eliminate as much inappropriate use as possible and increase access where it is inadequate.Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy (CDDEP