Aerial insecticide treatments against phyllophagous forest pests in Bavaria since the end of World War II

Der integrierte Pflanzenschutz ist seit 1987 ein zentraler Leitgedanke im deutschen Pflanzenschutzrecht. Demnach sind chemische Pflanzenschutzmittel (PSM) nur als letztes Mittel der Wahl einzusetzen und auf das notwendigste Maß zu beschränken. In den Waldschutzgrundsätzen der Bayerischen Staatsforstverwaltung war dieser Gedanke schon zuvor Tradition. Ein eigentümer- und/oder bestandesübergreifender Einsatz von PSM gegen nadel- und blattfressende Insekten, der stets über Luftfahrzeuge erfolgt, ist heutzutage die Ausnahme. Darüber, wie sich dies in der Vergangenheit verhielt, ist nur wenig publiziert. Die vorliegende Untersuchung setzt sich daher mit historischen Entwicklungen in der Ausbringungspraxis von Insektiziden über den Wäldern Bayerns seit Ende des zweiten Weltkriegs auseinander. Aus Literatur- und Archivmaterial konnte rekonstruiert werden, dass sich die Insektizid-Einsätze aus der Luft in vier zeitliche Phasen unterteilen lassen: Von 1947 bis 1962 gab es zahlreiche Befliegungen von überwiegend Nadelholzbeständen mit DDT. Im Anschluss folgte von 1963 bis 1977 eine Periode mit nur wenigen und kleinflächigen Behandlungen. Die sporadischen Behandlungen dieser Zeit galten ebenfalls überwiegend Nadelholzbeständen. In diesen Abschnitt fällt auch die wesentliche DDT-Einschränkung im Wald von 1971 und das DDT-Verbot im Wald im Jahr 1972. In den folgenden Jahren wurden „DDT-Ersatzstoffe“ gesucht und dabei verschiedene Wirkstoffe getestet. Im Jahr 1976 wurde mit Dimilin® ein PSM zugelassen, das wachstumsregulierend auf Insekten einwirkte. Dieses Mittel dominierte die weiteren PSM-Applikationen aus der Luft in Bayern. So kam es im Folgezeitraum zwischen 1978 und 1998 mit der hauptsächlichen Verwendung von Dimilin zum überwiegenden Einsatz eines Wachstumsreglers, als man kontinuierlich Behandlungen von Nadel- und Laubholzschadinsekten durchführte. In dem Zeitabschnitt ab 1999 wurden für den Insektizid-Einsatz aus der Luft ebenfalls überwiegend Wachstumsregler genutzt. Die Mittelausbringungen finden seitdem aber nur periodisch und ausschließlich in Eichenbeständen statt.Summiert man die Flächen aller in Bayern im betrachteten Zeitraum getätigten Behandlungen phyllophager Insekten aus der Luft auf und sortiert diese nach Organismen, so steht die Behandlungsfläche gegen den Schwammspinner (Lymantria dispar) mit 38.300 ha an erster Stelle. Darauf folgen die Nonne (Lymantria monacha) mit 32.900 ha und die beiden Arten Fichtengespinstblattwespe (Cephalcia abietis) und Forleule (Panolis flammea) mit jeweils ca. 18.250 ha.Seit 1947 wurden in Summe 141.176 ha Waldfläche mit Pflanzenschutzmitteln gegen blatt- und nadelfressende Insekten behandelt. Dies entspricht 5,4 % der heutigen Gesamtwaldfläche Bayerns beziehungsweise einer jährlichen Befliegungsrate von 0,07 %.Integrated pest management has been a central guiding principle in German plant protection law since 1987. According to this principle, chemical plant protection products (PPPs) should only be used as a last resort and should be limited to the minimum necessity. However, this idea was of central importance in the forest protection guidelines of the Bavarian State Forest Administration years before. The use of PPPs against needle- and leaf-feeding insects across different owners and/or stands, which is always carried out by aircraft, is now the exception in Bavarian’s forests. Little has been published on to which degree this principle of avoiding the use of PPPs as much as possible has also been pursued in the past. This study therefore examines historical developments in the application of insecticides over Bavarian forests since the end of Second World War. From literature and archive material, it was possible to reconstruct that the aerial application of insecticides in Bavaria can be divided into four phases: From 1947 to 1962, there were numerous aerial applications of DDT to predominantly coniferous stands. This was followed by a period from 1963 to 1977 with only a few small-scale treatments. The sporadic treatments during this period were also mainly applied to coniferous stands. This period also saw the significant restriction of DDT in forests in 1971 and the total ban on DDT in forests in 1972. As a result of these events, “DDT substitutes” were sought and various active substances were tested. In 1976, Dimilin®, a PPP with a growth-regulating effect on insects, was approved. Dimilin dominated further aerial applications of PPPs in Bavaria. In the subsequent period between 1978 and 1998, the main use of Dimilin resulted in the predominant use of a growth regulator, when continuous treatments of coniferous and deciduous wood pests were carried out. In the last phase since 1999, growth regulators continued to be used predominantly for aerial insecticide applications. Since then, however, insecticides have only been applied periodically and exclusively to oak stands.If the areas of all aerial treatments of phyllophagous insects that have been carried out within the scrutinized timespan in Bavaria are totaled and sorted by organism, the treatment area against the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) is in first place with 38,300 ha. This is followed by the nun moth (Lymantria monacha) with 32,900 ha and the two species spruce sawfly (Cephalcia abietis) and pine beauty moth (Panolis flammea) with approx. 18,250 ha each.Since 1947, a total of 141,176 ha of forest area have been treated with plant protection products against leaf- and needle- feeding insects. This corresponds to 5.4% of Bavaria\u27s current total forest area or an annual rate of 0.07%

Growth alterations in Scots pine seedlings grown in forest soil: implications for restorative forest management

Heave metals originating from smelting activity have deteriorated forest ecosystems in many places, The threat to forest does not cease even when the smelting activity ends, due to the pool of metal cations absobed into soils. When reforestation is planned in such areas, it is vital to know if seedlings survive in those conditions. We investigated the effects of nickel and copper added to soil on the growth of Scots pine seedlings. Root growth showed the strongest response. Ni being more harmful than Cu. The reduction in the green biomass produced during the experiment eas nearly the same as that in root biomass. Cu being more harmful. Copper toxicity in the aboveground parts is not direct, however, since Cu is not transported to the foliage or stem in toxic amaounts. The result show that afforestation may be possible even in areas polluted by smelting activity for decades.&nbsp

Non-native insects affecting forests in Germany and neighbouring countries

Neobiota sind Tier-, Pflanzen- oder Pilzarten, die in Mitteleuropa von Natur aus nicht vorkommen, sondern durch den Einfluss des Menschen zu uns gekommen sind. In dem synoptischen Beitrag werden neozoische phytophage Insektenarten, die an Waldbäumen in Deutschland und seinen Nachbarländern auftreten, vorgestellt. Es wird dargelegt, dass neozoische Insektenarten möglichst früh erkannt werden sollten, um ggf. rechtzeitig Gegenmaßnahmen zu ergreifen. Für den Fall der Etablierung bedarf es Experten an den zuständigen Fachinstitutionen auf Bundes- und Länderebene, um eine gesicherte Artbestimmung durchführen zu können und eine differenzierte Beurteilung möglicher Waldschutz-Risiken zu ermöglichen.Non-native species encompass animal, plant or fungi species, which would be naturally absent in Germany and its neighbouring countries, but have been introduced by human activity. This synoptic article presents non-native phytopathologic insect species that occur on forest trees in Central Europe. Based on these examples it is shown that such insect species should be detected as early as possible so that countermeasures can be taken. In the case of their establishment experts at the responsible institutions at federal and state level are needed to secure a reliable species identification and to enable a differentiated assessment of possible risks for forests

Physiological and Molecular Investigation of the Millerandage Problem in ‘Kalecik Karası’ (Vitis vinifera L.)

Millerandage, defined as the coexistence of both seeded and seedless berries within a grape cluster, is a common physi­ological disorder frequently observed in the ‘Kalecik Karası’ cultivar. One of the primary causes of this condition is the de­ficiency of boron, a micronutrient essential for pollen tube de­velopment and successful fertilization. Rootstocks influence boron uptake and transport, thereby affecting the severity of millerandage. In this study, the physiological and molecular basis of millerandage was investigated in ‘Kalecik Karası’ vines grafted onto 5BB (5.51), 41B (3.26) and 1103P (3.87) root­stocks. Among these, the 5BB rootstock showed the highest fruit set and Millerandage Index, indicating a strong tendency toward the formation of seedless berries despite high boron levels. Therefore, in the second phase of the study, only the 5BB rootstock was selected, and boron content in leaves as well as the expression levels of BOR-type transporter genes (VvBOR1, VvBOR3, VvBOR4) were analyzed in both seeded and seedless berries across five different phenological stages. Leaf boron levels were lowest during flowering and highest at veraison. Gene expression analysis revealed significantly higher BOR gene expression in seeded berries, especially at the fruit set stage, while expression levels remained low in seedless berries. This suggests limited boron translocation and disrupted fertilization in seedless berries. In conclusion, millerandage development is associated with both physiolog­ical effects of rootstocks and differential expression of boron transporter genes. Monitoring the expression of these genes and managing micronutrient nutrition may help improve ber­ry quality in sensitive cultivars

Influence of rapeseed oil ethoxylate surfactants on retention and biological efficacy of glyphosate spray solutions in selected weeds

Chemical weed control plays a major role in increasing productivity of modern cropping systems. Surfactans are used to improve the biological efficacy of foliar-applied herbicides. However, questions have been raised about the safety of the commonly used active ingredients and surfactans. As a consequence of the increasing pesticide safety demands and restrictive regulatory limitations on pesticide use, researchers are looking for new adjuvants with improved biological and ecotoxicological profiles. With this in mind a newer group of vegetable oils, namely rapeseed oil ethoxylates (RSO), was studied. Rapeseed oils with 5 (RSO 5), 10 (RSO 10), 20 (RSO 20), 30 (RSO 30), and 60 (RSO 60) ethoxylation units were added to glyphosate lutions and applied to different weed species (Amaranthus retroflexus, Datura stramonium, Setaria viridis, Viola arvensis). The influence of these oils on spray retention as well as the biological efficiacy of glyphosate was examined, using electron microscopy, spectroscopy, chlorophyll fluorescence, and dry matter determination. Scanning electron microscopy pictures of the weed surfaces were taken and displayed fundamental differences in the epidermal, cuticular and epicuticular structures of the leaf surfaces. Beside different habits and leaf structures the results were regarded as reasons for quantitative differences in the mean spray solutiondeposited. Further tests demonstrated that there was no correlation between retention behavior and biological efficiacy. Maximum chlorophyll fluorescence measurements showed similar or higher impact of glyphosate when rapeseed oils were added in comparison with treatment of Roundup Ultramax®. Good correlation was shown between hydrophilicity/ethoxylation of the solution and dry matter content, In D. straminium and V. arvensis increasing ethoxylation led to descreasing dry mass. The opposite could be shown in S. viridis. Amaranthus retroflexus had lowest dry mass when glyphosate was applied with RSO 20. The rapeseed oil ethoxylates used showed promising impacts on glyphosate spray solutions but further studies needd to be undertaken to clarify other processes of the foliar application of pesticides

“Planting potatoes with science”: A school project to raise consciousness of the importance of plant protection

Der Artikel „Kartoffeln mit Wissenschaft pflanzen“ beschreibt ein schulisches Bildungsprojekt, das Grundschülern durch praktische Erfahrungen im Kartoffelanbau die Landwirtschaft näherbringt, mit besonderem Fokus auf Pflanzengesundheit und Virusprävention. Dabei wird die IAC Sprossen/Saatkartoffel-Technologie angewendet. Das Programm wird wissenschaftlich vom Agronomischen Institut von Campinas (IAC) begleitet und vom Julius Kühn-Institut unterstützt. Es ermöglicht den Schülern, die Auswirkungen von Pflanzenviren auf den Ernteertrag zu beobachten, indem sie gesunde und virusinfizierte Kartoffeln anbauen. Das Projekt zielt darauf ab, das wachsende Auseinanderdriften von Stadtbewohnern und Lebensmittelproduktion zu verringern und ein tieferes Verständnis für nachhaltige landwirtschaftliche Praktiken zu fördern.Das Projekt integriert drei Dimensionen der Nachhaltigkeit: ökologisch (es zeigt, wie landwirtschaftliche Praktiken die Umwelt beeinflussen), ökonomisch (es hebt den wirtschaftlichen Wert ressourceneffizienter Landwirtschaft hervor) und sozial (es fördert das Bewusstsein für die kollektive Verantwortung in der Landwirtschaft). Durch die aktive Beteiligung der Schüler an der Pflanzenpflege, der Wachstumsüberwachung und der Ernte vermittelt das Projekt nicht nur Wissen über Agrarwissenschaft, sondern fördert auch kritisches Denken, Umweltbewusstsein und ein Verständnis für die Komplexität der Lebensmittelproduktion. Dieses erfolgreiche 15-jährige Projekt unterstreicht das Potenzial, Agrarwissenschaften frühzeitig in die Bildung zu integrieren und so eine Grundlage für bewusstes Konsumverhalten und nachhaltige Entscheidungsfindung zu schaffen.The article, "Planting Potatoes with Science," explores a school-based educational project that introduces elementary students to agriculture through hands-on potato cultivation following the IAC Sprout/Seed-Potato Tecnology, particularly focusing on plant health and virus prevention. Conducted with scientific guidance from the Agronomic Institute of Campinas (IAC) and supported by the Julius Kühn Institute, this program allows students to observe the effects of plant viruses on crop yield by growing both healthy and virus-infected potatoes. The initiative aims to reduce urban populations\u27 growing disconnect from food production, fostering a deeper understanding of sustainable agricultural practices.The project incorporates three dimensions of sustainability: ecological (demonstrating how agricultural practices impact the environment), economic (highlighting the economic value of resource-efficient farming), and social (promoting awareness of collective agricultural responsibility). By engaging students in plant care, growth monitoring, and final harvest activities, the project not only educates them about agricultural science but also cultivates critical thinking, environmental awareness, and an appreciation for food production\u27s complexities. This successful 15-year initiative underscores the potential of integrating agricultural science into early education, encouraging future consumer consciousness and a foundation for informed, sustainability-minded decision-making

Use of pesticides in the state forest of the Free State of Saxony (Germany) – retrospect and outlook

Im Beitrag werden quantitative Angaben zu den in der Vergangenheit im Staatswald des Freistaates Sachsen durchgeführten relevanten Pflanzenschutzmittel (PSM)-Anwendungen dargestellt und diskutiert. Dies erfolgt differenziert nach wesentlichen Anwendungsbereichen und mit Bezug zu den Prinzipien des integrierten (Forst)-Pflanzenschutzes und den fachlichen Erfordernissen des langjährig praktizierten Waldumbaus. Damit werden Ansatzpunkte für Reduktionsmöglichkeiten identifiziert. Datenbasis sind Erhebungen im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (BMEL) bzw. der Landesregierung, die auf entsprechende Aufzeichnungen der Forstbezirke zurückgreifen.Unter Berücksichtigung aktueller (forst-)politischer Zielstellungen zur Reduktion des Pflanzenschutzmitteleinsatzes wird auf das Konzept von Sachsenforst zum zukünftigen Einsatz von PSM als integraler Bestandteil der Waldumbaustrategie Bezug genommen. Dabei werden Möglichkeiten und Grenzen eines Anwendungsverzichts erörtert.We present and discuss quantitative data on the use of pesticides in the state forest of the Free State of Saxony. We display the amounts of pesticides used in the past for the most relevant fields of application. Furthermore, we discuss pesticide use in the context of both the principles of integrated plant protection and large-scale forest conversion, and we identify options to reduce pesticide use. Records from forest districts, that had been gathered and aggregated to answer inquiries from both the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and the Saxon State government, were used as data source.In a second part, we focus on current forest policy developments, and make reference to a concept developed by the Public Forest Enterprise Sachsenforst for the future use of plant protection products as an integral part of the forest conversion strategy. The possibilities and limits of minimizing the use of pesticides are discussed

Impact of leaf growth stages on essential oil composition and bioactivity in lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil plays a crucial role in managing digestion, blood cholesterol levels, inflammation, and the immune system. It also has a calming effect on the mind and body in aromatherapy. Among its constituents, β-myrcene has been reported as a potent analgesic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agent. This study aimed determine the optimum leaf development stage for extracting essential oil enriched with therapeutic phytochemicals such as citral, β-myrcene, and perillaldehyde. In lemongrass, essential oil is produced by glandular trichomes. Microscopic analysis revealed the presence of capitate-stalked trichomes on the abaxial epidermis of the leaves. GC-MS analysis identified key phytochemicals such as citral and β myrcene in significant amounts across all leaf growth stages, with essential oil yields of 52.03% (lag phase), 64.26% (log phase), and 69.27% (stationary phase). Antioxidant activity was evaluated at 50 µL/mL, with the highest value (84.42 ± 0.03%) observed in the lag phase. Total phenolic content was also highest in the lag phase (1123.61 ± 16.71 µg GAE/g), whereas total antioxidant capacity reached its maximum in the stationary phase (0.7 ± 0.15).  The stationary phase exhibited the highest anti-inflammatory potential (82.12 ± 0.04%). Both the stationary and lag phases demonstrated the highest anti-diabetic potential compared to the commercial drug sitagliptin-metformin. The stationary phase exhibited the highest biofilm inhibitory potential against S. aureus (38.78 ± 0.12%) and R. solanacearum (91.00 ± 0.07%), while the lag phase showed the strongest inhibition against X. oryzae (89.57 ± 0.01%). GC-MS analysis identified citral, β myrcene,  and perillaldehyde. These findings suggest that Cymbopogon citratus is a valuable source of citral, β-myrcene, and perillaldehyde, particularly in the log and stationary phases of leaf development

Efficient regeneration of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni transformants through hairy root culture technique

Stevia rebaudiana is a small herb from the Asteraceae family. The plant produces tetracyclic diterpenes, steviol glycosides (SGs) thatmakes it Stevia sweet. Stevia can act as a natural sweetener as it does not interfere with insulin metabolism in humans when consumed. Amid the prevailing paradigm of health-focused living, Stevia can be produced and used worldwide by individuals and plant breeders. Yet, it is frequently challenging to cultivate stevia conventionally due to low germinating rate and viability of its seeds. Hence, raising plants through tissue culture becomes a viable option. The present study aims to regenerate transformed Stevia lines through Rhizobium rhizogenes mediated hairy root culture for investigating the possibility of increasing SGs. This study also focuses on increasing Stevia plant lines through an efficient and cost-effective micropropagation technique. For micropropagation, MS media supplied with 1 mg L-1 BAP in combination with 0.2 mg L -1 NAA gave the best result for shooting with nodal segments as explants. MS medium supplemented with IBA at a concentration of 1 mg L-1 was most effective in promoting the highest number of roots, while 2 mg L-1 IBA was optimal for achieving the longest root length. The highest number and frequency of hairy roots were observed with co-culture period of 48 h. Growth of transformed plantlets was observed best with 1 mg L-1 BAP + 0.3 mg L-1 NAA after 8 weeks of micro-shoots placed on solid MS media. Stevia plants raised through these biotechnological approaches will be a boon to plant breeders and researchers as these are efficient and easy methods to raise Stevia plants. The growing demand for natural sweeteners will be met at lower cost to pharmacologyindustries and individuals suffering from various life style diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and obesity