Foraging behaviour of ruminant and non-ruminant grazers as a function of habitat heterogeneity in Telperion and Ezemvelo Nature Reserves(Ezemvelo section)

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Resource Conservation Biology. Johannesburg, 29 May 2017.An understanding of animal foraging behaviour is key to proper management strategies that ensure the survival and species persistence within nature reserves. Here the foraging behaviour of ruminant (hartebeest and wildebeest) and non-ruminant (zebra) grazers were observed and compared between two areas with distinctively different vegetation structure, the natural vegetation (NL) and previously cultivated land (PCL), in Telperion and Ezemvelo Nature Reserves (TENR). Natural vegetation was dominated by tall grass of low greenness with patches of short to very short grass, while the PCL was dominated by areas of very short to short grass (grazing lawns) with patches of medium to tall grass. Step rate (SR) and foraging time spent per feeding station (FTFS) were used as indices of foraging behaviour. I also measured the characteristics of the grass sward (grass height and greenness) grazed on by the three species. Both ruminants had high SR and low FTFS. Despite having similar SR and FTFS, ruminants grazed on grass of different height. Hartebeest preferred tall grass with low greenness content (0-10%), while wildebeest preferred short to very short grass and were significantly selective of areas with relative high greenness (11-50%) on PCL, more so than any other species. Compared to ruminant grazers the non-ruminant (zebra) had low SR and high FTFS and like hartebeest they grazed on medium to tall grass of very low greenness content (0 10%). This study did not reveal any difference in feeding behaviour within species between the two study sites. The finding of this study confirms that ruminant and non-ruminant species have different foraging behaviour, and habitat heterogeneity is necessary for the reserve to support different grazing species. Key words: digestive physiology, feeding station, step rate, wildebeest, hartebeest, zebraGR201

The Importance of Soil Seed Bank Dynamics as Potential Indicators of Desertification Tipping Point

Soil seed banks play a major role in the vegetation dynamics of drylands, where annual rainfall is unpredictable and plants depend on a persistent stage (seeds) to survive over the dry season. The purpose of the study is to understand the behaviour of the rangeland system in terms of soil seed bank dynamics before, during and after crossing the “so called” DTP and to determine whether different management systems plays a role in accelerating the desertification process. Through the use of the Space for Time Substitution Approach the study analysed spatial grazing gradients (gradients radiating from water points) to predict how soil seed banks would respond to long term grazing scenarios. Soil seed bank samples were collected along grazing gradients under two management systems (commercial and communal), processed through seedling emergence method and analysed with SPSS statistical package. Though our results indicated larger soil seed bank under the commercial management system, the seed bank size did not differ significantly along both commercial and communal grazing gradients. Commercially managed sites had a larger seed bank of perennial grasses compared to communal sites. Some of which increased gradually with increasing grazing intensity (Eragrostis trichophora), while other decreased with the increase in grazing intensity (Eragrostis rigidior and Eragrostis pallens). Further testing of other seed processes is still ongoing and will be completed in the 1st quota of 2022. Based on the first results soil seed bank size might not be a good indicator of DTP but rather seed bank life form composition as well as species composition of perennial grasses might serve as good indicators of DTP

Normal reference values for thyroid uptake of technetium-99m pertechnetate for the Namibian population

Objective: Historically, changes in normal thyroid uptake values for iodine have been reported in different geographical areas. These changes have been linked to geographical and chronological fluctuations in dietary iodine intake in different populations. Namibia is a country with mixed ethnicity, with access to dietary iodine in table salt. Despite historical reports on deviating normal thyroid uptake values (emphasising the importance of establishing local normal reference values), the relevant Namibian authorities have never revised these reference values, nor have local reference values been established. The aim of this study was to establish the normal reference values for thyroid uptake of technetium-99m pertechnetate in the Namibian population.Design: Participants who were considered to be euthyroid completed a questionnaire designed to exclude individuals with thyroid pathologies, as well as those with renal or heart disease.Settings and subjects: The study cohort consisted of 76 participants (58 women and 18 men), ranging in age from 39-81 years. The participants were of mixed ethnicity, consisting of Hereros, Ovambos, Damaras, Namas, Coloureds, Caucasians and other (non-Namibian immigrants), and were from Windhoek, Namibia. Studies were performed at the Windhoek Central Hospital.Outcome measures: Blood was drawn for thyroid hormone assessment. Participants were then given 100 MBq of technetium-99m pertechnetate intravenously, and their percentage thyroid uptake recorded after 20 minutes.Results: In this study, thyroid-stimulating hormone, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine levels were found to be 1.7 μIU/ ml, 4.9 pmol/ml and 10.3 pmol/ml, respectively. Analysis of the empirical data showed that the normal reference uptake value for technetium-99m pertechnetate in the studied population ranged between 0.04% and 2.40%.The fifth and 95th percentiles for pertechnetate uptake were 0.15% and 1.69%, respectively.Conclusion: These results provide new evidence which supports the importance of periodical evaluation of normal thyroid uptake reference values for technetium-99m pertechnetate.Keywords: technetium-99m pertechnetate, euthyroid, uptak

A critical analysis of parental involvement in the education of learners in rural Namibia

The role of parents in the education of learners as well as the relationships between and amongst parents and professional educators has long been of interest to researchers and practitioners at all levels of public and private education. The consistent findings that the involvement of parents positively influences educational quality and learners’ academic achievement are well documented. However, the findings also concluded that parental involvement is difficult to implement in rural schools and its practices are more likely to take root in schools that serve urban and suburban populations than in schools that serve rural and low-income populations. Moreover, in most schools where parental involvement is functional, parents are more involved in non-academic activities than academic activities. Against this background, it can be stated that there is insufficient empirical research-based information on whether and how parental involvement in academic education of learners can be practised in economically distressed contexts, especially in Namibia. Therefore, the current study intended to critically analyse whether and how do professional educators and parents of rural lower primary schools in Namibia perceive, think about and practise involvement in the academic education of learners. The framework of this study is based on Critical and Ecological Theories. The Ecological Theory regards both parents and schools as valuable contributors to children’s learning. The critical theory claims that there is no absolute knowledge that people can grasp. All people encounter are opinions. Hence, this study challenged a long held ideal and belief of the capitalist culture in regard to positioning activities, and knowledge and resources of poor families as subordinate. The study employed a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methodological research designs. A survey about professional educators’ perceptions on parental involvement was sent to 205 schools (of which 87 responded) to collect quantitative data for Phase 1 of the study. Frequency analysis was done to identify the meaning of the quantitative data. The analysis of quantitative data grouped schools into 3 groups (high, intermediate and low) according to their levels of practising parental involvement. Six schools (2 per group) were selected for Phase 2 of the study. Interviews were conducted among 18 professional educators and 12 parents of the six schools to collect qualitative data on their perspectives, attitudes and practices of parental involvement. Content analysis was made use of to explore meaningful aspects and indicators of parental involvement in lower primary schools in Ohangwena Region. The following indicators revealed by the professional educators’ and parents’ reported experiences of parental involvement practice qualify the researched schools to be regarded as demonstrating parental involvement in learners’ academic education: conducive climate and respectful relationship; provision of educational opportunities to parents; use of community resources; provision of opportunities for technical support to parents; use of various and possible communication options; power sharing with parents and encouraging them to actively participate in decision-making bodies; and professional educators’ positive attitude towards involvement.Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2008.Curriculum Studiesunrestricte

Characterizing Tropical Forest Cover Loss Using Dense Sentinel-1 Data and Active Fire Alerts

Fire use for land management is widespread in natural tropical and plantation forests, causing major environmental and economic damage. Recent studies combining active fire alerts with annual forest-cover loss information identified fire-related forest-cover loss areas well, but do not provide detailed understanding on how fires and forest-cover loss are temporally related. Here, we combine Sentinel-1-based, near real-time forest cover information with Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) active fire alerts, and for the first time, characterize the temporal relationship between fires and tropical forest-cover loss at high temporal detail and medium spatial scale. We quantify fire-related forest-cover loss and separate fires that predate, coincide with, and postdate forest-cover loss. For the Province of Riau, Indonesia, dense Sentinel-1 C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar data with guaranteed observations of at least every 12 days allowed for confident and timely forest-cover-loss detection in natural and plantation forest with user’s and producer’s accuracy above 95%. Forest-cover loss was detected and confirmed within 22 days in natural forest and within 15 days in plantation forest. This difference can primarily be related to different change processes and dynamics in natural and plantation forest. For the period between 1 January 2016 and 30 June 2017, fire-related forest-cover loss accounted for about one third of the natural forest-cover loss, while in plantation forest, less than ten percent of the forest-cover loss was fire-related. We found clear spatial patterns of fires predating, coinciding with, or postdating forest-cover loss. Only the minority of fires in natural and plantation forest temporally coincided with forest-cover loss (13% and 16%) and can thus be confidently attributed as direct cause of forest-cover loss. The majority of the fires predated (64% and 58%) or postdated forest-cover loss (23% and 26%), and should be attributed to other key land management practices. Detailed and timely information on how fires and forest cover loss are temporally related can support tropical forest management, policy development, and law enforcement to reduce unsustainable and illegal fire use in the tropics

Normal reference values for thyroid uptake of technetium-99m pertechnetate for the Namibian population

Objective: Historically, changes in normal thyroid uptake values for iodine have been reported in different geographical areas. These changes have been linked to geographical and chronological fluctuations in dietary iodine intake in different populations. Namibia is a country with mixed ethnicity, with access to dietary iodine in table salt. Despite historical reports on deviating normal thyroid uptake values (emphasising the importance of establishing local normal reference values), the relevant Namibian authorities have never revised these reference values, nor have local reference values been established. The aim of this study was to establish the normal reference values for thyroid uptake of technetium-99m pertechnetate in the Namibian population. Design: Participants who were considered to be euthyroid completed a questionnaire designed to exclude individuals with thyroid pathologies, as well as those with renal or heart disease. Settings and subjects: The study cohort consisted of 76 participants (58 women and 18 men), ranging in age from 39-81 years. The participants were of mixed ethnicity, consisting of Hereros, Ovambos, Damaras, Namas, Coloureds, Caucasians and other (non-Namibian immigrants), and were from Windhoek, Namibia. Studies were performed at the Windhoek Central Hospital. Outcome measures: Blood was drawn for thyroid hormone assessment. Participants were then given 100 MBq of technetium-99m pertechnetate intravenously, and their percentage thyroid uptake recorded after 20 minutes. Results: In this study, thyroid-stimulating hormone, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine levels were found to be 1.7 μIU/ml, 4.9 pmol/ml and 10.3 pmol/ml, respectively. Analysis of the empirical data showed that the normal reference uptake value for technetium-99m pertechnetate in the studied population ranged between 0.04% and 2.40%. The fifth and 95th percentiles for pertechnetate uptake were 0.15% and 1.69%, respectively. Conclusion: These results provide new evidence which supports the importance of periodical evaluation of normal thyroid uptake reference values for technetium-99m pertechnetate

Inter-comparison of satellite sensor land surface phenology and ground phenology in Europe

Land surface phenology (LSP) and ground phenology (GP) are both important sources of information for monitoring terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate changes. Each measures different vegetation phenological stages and has different sources of uncertainties, which make comparison in absolute terms challenging, and therefore, there has been limited attempts to evaluate the complementary nature of both measures. However, both LSP and GP are climate driven and therefore should exhibit similar interannual variation. LSP obtained from the whole time series of Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer data was compared to thousands of deciduous tree ground phenology records of the Pan European Phenology network (PEP725). Correlations observed between the interannual time series of the satellite sensor estimates of phenology and PEP725 records revealed a close agreement (especially for Betula Pendula and Fagus Sylvatica species). In particular, 90% of the statistically significant correlations between LSP and GP were positive (mean R2 = 0.77). A large spatiotemporal correlation was observed between the dates of the start of season (end of season) from space and leaf unfolding (autumn coloring) at the ground (pseudo R2 of 0.70 (0.71)) through the application of nonlinear multivariate models, providing, for the first time, the ability to predict accurately the date of leaf unfolding (autumn coloring) across Europe (root-mean-square error of 5.97 days (6.75 days) over 365 days)

An Integrated Framework to Study Ecological Tipping Points in Social-Ecological Systems

Sudden regime shifts or tipping points pose a major threat to various ecosystems and people\u27s livelihoods worldwide. However, tipping points are still hard to predict and often occur without warning. To avoid dramatic social-ecological consequences, it is crucial to understand tipping point behaviour and to identify early warning indicators. Previous studies have hardly implemented an integrated social-ecological approach, which has led to a fragmented understanding and oversimplification of tipping point phenomena. Against this background, we present a systemic research framework that harmonizes ecological and social perspectives to gain a mechanistic understanding of tipping point behaviour. We utilize a social-ecological systems (SES) approach to identify drivers, consequences, and feasible preventive strategies. Our proposed framework consists of a retrospective, a comparative and a prospective perspective; each of them utilizes interdisciplinary studies in both sub systems at multiple scales. The research framework was developed by the members of NamTip, an inter- and transdisciplinary research project aiming to understand and manage desertification tipping points in Namibia’s semi-arid rangelands. The NamTip project represents a practical implementation of the research framework, that uses an integrated, social-ecological study design combining the threefold approach with dynamic modelling. This includes analyses of time-series and archival data, experimental and observational studies, as well as scenario development and exploration of decision-making with local farmers. After the initial practical implementation and with our ongoing evaluation, we are convinced that such an ambitious and complex framework will guide the way to a profound understanding of tipping point phenomena and feasible management options

Space-time monitoring of tropical forest changes using observations from multiple satellites

Forests provide essential goods and services to humanity, but human-induced forest disturbances have been on ongoing at alarming rates, undermining the capacity for forests to continue providing essential goods and services. In recent years, the understanding of the short-term and long-term impacts of deforesting and degrading forest ecosystems has improved, and global efforts to reduce forest loss are ongoing. However, in many parts of the globe, significant forest areas continue to be lost. To fully protect forest ecosystems efficiently, timely, reliable and location-specific information on new forest disturbances is needed. Frequent and large-area forest mapping and monitoring using satellite observations can provide timely and cost-effective information about new forest disturbances. However, there are still key weaknesses associated with existing forest monitoring systems. For example, the capacity for forest monitoring systems to detect new disturbances accurately and timely is often limited by persistent cloud cover and strong seasonal dynamics. Persistent cloud can be addressed by using observations from multiple satellite sensors, but satellite sensors often have inter-sensor differences which make integration of observations from multiple sensors challenging. Seasonality can be accounted for using a seasonal model, but image time series are often acquired at irregular intervals, making it difficult to properly account for seasonality. Furthermore, with existing forest monitoring systems, detecting subtle, low-magnitude disturbances remains challenging, and timely detection of forest disturbances is often accompanied by many false detections. The overall objective of this thesis is to improve forest change monitoring by addressing the key challenges which hinders accurate and timely detection of forest disturbances from satellite data. In the next paragraphs, I summarise how this thesis tackled some of the key challenges which hamper effective monitoring of forest disturbances using satellite observations. Chapter 2 addresses the challenge of seasonality by developing a spatial normalisation approach that allows us to account for seasonality in irregular image time series when monitoring forest disturbances. In this chapter, I showed that reducing seasonality in image time series using spatial normalisation leads to timely detection of forest disturbances when compared to a seasonal model approach. With spatial normalisation, near real-time forest monitoring in dry forests, which has been challenging for many years, is now possible. Applying spatial normalisation in areas where evergreen and deciduous forests co-exist is however challenging. Therefore, further research is needed to improve the spatial normalisation approach to ensure that it is applicable to areas with a combination of different forest types. In particular, a spatial normalisation approach which is forest type-specifics is desirable. In this chapter, forest disturbances were detected by analysing single pixel-time series. Spatial information was only used to reduce seasonality. Taking in account the fact that forest disturbances are spatio-temporal events, I investigated whether there is an added-value of combining both spatial and temporal information when monitoring forest disturbances from satellite image time series. To do this, I first developed a space-time change detection method that detects forest disturbances as extreme events in satellite data cubes (Chapter 3). I showed that, by combining spatial and temporal information, forest disturbances can still be detected reliably even with limited historical observations. Therefore, unlike approaches which detect forest disturbances by analysing single pixel- time series, the space-time approach does not require huge amount of historical images to be pre-processed when monitoring forest disturbances. I then evaluated the added-value of using space-time features when confirming forest disturbances (Chapter 4). I showed that using a set of space-time features to confirm forest disturbances enhance forest monitoring significantly by reducing false detections without compromising temporal accuracy. With space-time features, the discrimination of forest disturbances from false detections is no longer based on temporal information only, hence providing opportunity to also detect low-magnitude disturbances with high confidence. Based on the analysis for conditional variable importance, I showed that features which are computed using both spatial and temporal information were the most important predictors of forest disturbances, thus enforcing the view that forest disturbances should be treated as spatio-temporal in order to improve forest change monitoring. In Chapter 2 – 4, forest disturbances where detected from medium resolution Landsat time series. Yet, recent studies showed that small-scale forest disturbances are often omitted when using Landsat time series. In Chapter 5, I investigated whether detection of small-scale forest disturbances can be improved by using the 10m resolution time series from recently launched Sentinel-2 sensor. I also investigated whether the spatial normalisation approach developed in Chapter 2 can be used to reduce inter-sensor differences in multi-sensor optical time series. I showed that the 10m resolution Sentinel-2 time series improves the detection of small-scale forest disturbances when compared to 30m resolution. However, the 10m resolution does not supersede the importance of frequent satellite observations when monitoring forest disturbances. I also showed that spatial normalisation approach developed in Chapter 2 can reduce inter-sensor differences in multi-sensor optical time series significantly to generate temporally consistent time series suitable for forest change detection. Spatial normalisation does not completely remove inter-sensor differences, but the differences are significantly reduced. Monitoring of forest disturbances is increasingly done using a combination of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical time series. Therefore, Chapter 6 investigated whether the spatial normalisation approach developed in Chapter 2 can also reduce seasonal variations in SAR time series to facilitate the integration of SAR-optical time series for forest monitoring in dry tropical forests. This Chapter demonstrated that seasonal variations in SAR time series can also be reduced through spatial normalisation. As a result, observations from SAR and optical time series were combined to improve near real-time forest change detection in dry tropical forest. In Chapter 7, it is demonstrated that spatial normalisation has potential to also reduce inter-sensor differences in SAR-optical time series, resulting into temporally consistent SAR-optical time series. In conclusion, this thesis developed a space-time forest monitoring framework that addresses some key challenges affecting satellite-based forest monitoring. In particular, new methods that allow for timely and accurate detection of forest disturbances using observations from multiple satellites were developed. Overall, the methods developed in this research contribute to our capacity to accurately and timely detect forest disturbances in both dry and humid forests.</p

An investigation into the causes and impacts of land degradation, and possible management strategies and mitigation measures in the Oshana region, Northern Namibia

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2019.ENGLISH SUMMARY : Land degradation is a complex phenomenon, and its relation to various impacts has attracted research from various disciplines. Many researchers concluded that the deterioration of the environment is mainly caused by human activities. Anthropogenic activities, which can lead to land degradation, are overgrazing, rapid increase in number of livestock, sand mining, climate change, deforestation, and population pressure. Many parts of Namibia are affected by land degradation, hence the purpose of this study. This study investigated the causes and impacts of land degradation in the Oshana region of Namibia. The research objectives of this study include an exploration of existing national legislation and policies directly or indirectly addressing land degradation. The research design adopted is a case study, using both quantitative and qualitative methods, and primary and secondary data. The study population comprised residents from the Oshana region, and a small subset of employees of the Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism, the Ministry of Agricultural Water and Forestry and the Ministry of Land Reform. Hundred questionnaires were used to collect data from the respondents (both residents and officials) and out of these, 86 questionnaires were returned. The questionnaires to residents were distributed during the annual Ongwediva trade fair, using a random sampling method. The questionnaires distributed to officials used purposive sampling, focussing on relevant Ministries that deal with land degradation. The questionnaire comprised both closed and open-ended questions. Closed questions were analysed with Excel, and open-ended questions by thematically categorising similar concept. The literature review explored the extent of the problem, and the causes and impacts of land degradation. A review of Namibian policies identified a problem with coordination of legislation between departments, a lack of data for planning, and a lack of monitoring. The case study shows that the bigger portion of the Oshana region is communal land, and communal land rights and leaseholds are the most common land ownership models in the Oshana region. According to the respondents the major causes of land degradation in the region are climate change, overgrazing, population pressures, urbanisation and poor soil and low rainfall. These factors contribute a lot to the loss of fauna and flora, and desertification. The study also highlights sandmining as a more recent challenge in the region, which up to now has been uncontrolled. Although most respondents were aware of land degradation, they also felt that the local community is not empowered to deal with land degradation problems, nor does the community get together to address them. Only about 40% of the respondent felt that community members were involved in decision-making. They identified that land degradation policies require more public input in order to achieve land degradation goals. The respondents also stated that existing policies, laws, regulations, plans and programmes were not fully implemented, and felt the laws also needed changing to adapt to environmental conditions and to the specific context in Oshana. The respondents felt communal ownership of land should be encouraged, but that there should be a fairer system of land allocation, so that some people do not control large tracts of land, while others have very little land. They suggested solutions to the problem of land degradation, such as awareness campaigns, the enforcement of grazing management plans, policies about-revegetation of areas and the prevention of dual grazing (when people who controlled and fenced ‘private’ land, still let their cattle graze on the commonage). They also felt that limits should be placed on the number of livestock in each village, as currently there is no penalty for over stocking. Lastly, the study recommends that land degradation management strategies and mitigation measures be mainstreamed into all policies, which should be regularly amended every decade, as laws get outdated. New laws, policies and plans should combine both scientific and local knowledge, with more public participation. Better implementation of existing policies, laws, regulations and strategies is also needed, including better coordination between departments. Poverty and diversifying sustainable livelihoods should be addresses, as poverty is one of the reasons people overuse local resources.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Grond degradasie is 'n komplekse verskynsel, en die verhouding tot verskeie impakte het navorsing uit verskeie dissiplines gelok. Baie navorsers het bevind dat die agteruitgang van die omgewing hoofsaaklik deur menslike aktiwiteite veroorsaak word. Antropogeniese aktiwiteite wat tot grond degradasie kan lei, is oorbeweiding, vinnige toename in die aantal vee, sand-mynbou, klimaatsverandering, ontbossing en bevolkings-druk. Baie dele van Namibië word geraak deur grond degradasie, dus die doel van hierdie studie. Hierdie studie het die oorsake en impakte van grond degradasie in die Oshana-streek van Namibië eksplisiet ondersoek. Die navorsing doelwitte van hierdie studie sluit in 'n verkenning van bestaande nasionale wetgewing en beleid wat regstreeks of onregstreeks aan grond degradasie aandag gee. Die navorsingsontwerp wat aangeneem is, is 'n gevallestudie wat beide kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe metodes gebruik, sowel as primêre en sekondêre data. Die studie bevolking bestaan uit inwoners van die Oshana-streek, asook 'n klein deelversameling van werknemers van die Namibiese Ministerie van Omgewing en Toerisme, die Ministerie van Landbou, Water en Bosbou en die Ministerie van Grondhervorming. Honderde vraelyste is gebruik om data van die respondente (beide inwoners en beamptes) in te samel en daaruit is 86 vraelyste terug ontvang. Die vraelyste aan inwoners is tydens die jaarlikse Ongwediva handelskou uitgedeel, met behulp van 'n ewekansige steekproefmetode. Die vraelyste wat aan beamptes versprei is, het 'n doelbewuste steekproefneming gebruik, met die fokus op relevante ministeries wat met grond degradasie handel. Die vraelys het beide geslote en oop vrae ingesluit. Geslote vrae is geanaliseer met behulp van Excel, terwyl oop vrae geanaliseer is deur tematies soortgelyke konsepte saam te kategoriseer. Die literatuuroorsig het die omvang van die probleem ondersoek en wat die oorsake en impak van grond degradasie was. 'n Oorsig oor die Namibiese beleid het 'n probleem geïdentifiseer met die koördinering van wetgewing tussen departemente, 'n gebrek aan data vir basiese beplanning en 'n gebrek aan monitering. Die gevallestudie illustreer dat die groter gedeelte van die Oshana-streek gemeenskaplike grond is, en gemeenskaplike grondregte en huurkontrakte die algemeenste grondbesit modelle in die Oshanastreek is. Volgens die respondente is die belangrikste oorsake van grond degradasie in die streek, klimaatsverandering, oorbeweiding, bevolkings-druk, verstedeliking en swak grond en lae reënval. Hierdie faktore dra baie by tot die verlies van fauna en flora, sowel as tot verwoestyning. Die studie beklemtoon ook sand-mynbou as 'n meer onlangse uitdaging in die streek, wat tot nou toe nie beheer was nie. Alhoewel die meeste respondente bewus is van grond degradasie, het hulle ook gevoel dat die plaaslike gemeenskap nie gemagtig is om probleme met grond degradasie te hanteer nie. Die gemeenskap kom ook nie saam die uitdaging aan spreek nie. Slegs sowat 40% van die respondent het gevoel dat gemeenskapslede betrokke was by besluitneming. Hulle het bevind dat grond degradasie beleid meer openbare insette vereis om grond degradasie-doelwitte te bereik. Die respondente het ook verklaar dat bestaande beleide, wette, regulasies, planne en programme nie ten volle geïmplementeer word nie en het ook gevoel dat dit ook nodig was dat die wette moes verander om aan te pas by omgewings-omstandighede en die spesifieke konteks in Oshana. Die respondente het gemeen dat gemeenskaplike eienaarskap van grond aangemoedig moet word, maar dat daar 'n regverdiger stelsel van grondtoewysing moet wees, sodat sommige mense nie groot dele van die land beheer nie, terwyl ander baie min grond het nie. Hulle het oplossings voorgestel vir die probleem van grond degradasie, soos bewusmakingsveldtogte, die handhawing van weidings-bestuursplanne, beleid oor die herbeplanting van gebiede en die voorkoming van dubbele weiding (wanneer mense wat privaat grond beheer en omhein het, hulle vee steeds toelaat om te wei op die meentgrond). Hulle het ook gevoel dat daar perke op die aantal vee in elke dorp geplaas moet word, aangesien daar tans geen boete vir oorbeweiding is nie. Laastens beveel die studie aan dat grond degradasie bestuur strategieë en versagtingsmaatreëls in alle beleide opgeneem word, wat gereeld elke tien jaar gewysig moet word, aangesien wette verouder word. Nuwe wette, beleide en planne moet beide wetenskaplike en plaaslike kennis kombineer, met meer openbare deelname. Beter implementering van bestaande beleide, wette, regulasies en strategieë is ook nodig, insluitend beter koördinering tussen departemente. Armoede en diversifisering van volhoubare lewensbestaan moet aandag geniet, aangesien armoede een van die redes is waarom mense die plaaslike hulpbronne oorbenut.Master