STRUCTURE OF PHENOMENALLY INTENTIONAL STATES

Philosophy of mind has been concerned, one might even say dwell, with the mind \u2013 body problem since the ancient times. Although, present-day, we speak of the mind \u2013 brain problem, consciousness studies within philosophy are still mostly engaged within this debate. However, the \u2018hard problem\u2019 of consciousness does not yield and remains to be hard. On the other hand, it still is the problem our attention should be focused on. How does one reconcile this imbalance? Perhaps with a slight shift in methodology. Put the discussion of the structure of the relation between phenomenological and physical in the background and focus on the structure of phenomenology itself. This dissertation is precisely an attempt at that \u2013 it concerns the structure of phenomenally intentional mental states. These are mental states that exhibit, primarily, the phenomenal consciousness, the felt, subjective, or \u2018what it is like\u2019 (Nagel, 1974) aspect of mental life. They also exhibit the intentional directedness; they are directed or \u201cof\u201d something. Until recently these two features were for the most part unreconciled. Paradigmatically intentional mental states, such as beliefs and thoughts, were not considered to be phenomenal. Vice versa \u2013 paradigmatically phenomenal mental states, such as feeling and sensations, were not considered to be intentional (although perception is possibly the one exception, being a mental state that is traditionally seen as phenomenal and intentional), were not considered to be intentional. I advocate a view according to which all intentional mental states are phenomenal, or at least, partly depend on phenomenology. There are, I believe, five marks of the mental (in no particular order): consciousness, intentionality, phenomenology, subjectivity, and temporality. I discuss each of them in this dissertation. As is evident by now and which I aim to further clarify, I do not take these terms necessarily to refer to the same underlying phenomena. My aim in this dissertation is to touch upon each of the five \u2018marks of the mental\u2019. The dissertation, formed as a collection of papers, starts by introducing a novel theory of modes or attitudes in \u2018Intentional Primitivism of Modes\u2019. Here I defend the idea that phenomenally intentional mental states, as defined above, are not individuated only by content, but also by mode. Both variables need to be fixed in order to fix the nature of a conscious mental state. My theory differs from other intentional primitivist theories of modes in that the modes are intrinsically differentiated, as opposed to relational (Crane, 2001; 2003) or simply qualitative (Block, 1978; 1994; 2007). That is to say, modes do not get their intentional character through relational properties to the intentional object, nor are they simply qualitatively defined as such mode as opposed to another. Rather modes are inherently intentional. I distinguish two ways of experiencing modes; a coarse-grained and a fine-grained, and put forward a new metaphysical model, the modifiers model, based on non-representational features of mental states that make a difference to how the occurrent mental state is given to us in experience. I explain the relation between mode and modifier as a genus \u2013 specie relation. For example, desperately desiring is composed of the property of desire, the mode, and an independent modifier of desperation. This, as a result, makes my theory adverbialist, however only at a single level, namely, at the level of modes or attitudes, and as such I avoid the main issues of adverbialism. Lastly, I give the metaphysical underpinning of modes in terms of trope theory of modes. However, this is not to say that all modes or attitudes are per se intentional. Hence, in the second paper \u2018Composition of Phenomenally Intentional States\u2019, I analyze the relationship between modes and contents. Here, there are two outstanding questions. The first one is, after examining the explanandum metaphysically and positing certain modes as primitive, the taxonomy of modes or attitudes, i.e., which are reducible to others. Furthermore, some modes are to be eliminated at modes and given a different classification. The second question is a more straightforward question of relation: once we individuate mode and content, how are they combined? Depending on the answer to the first question, I look more closely at possible metaphysical relations between modes and contents and give necessary conditions for the options, e.g. fusion, emergence, composition etc. The second part of the dissertation deals with differentiating conditions when is a mental state rightly said to be conscious, as opposed to unconscious and what are the consequences for intentionality and phenomenology. Here, I turn, in the third paper \u2018Pure Content View of the Unconscious\u2019, on the structure of unconsciousness itself. I defend Intentional Realism about unconscious or the thesis that unconscious mental states are genuinely intentional. Simply put, mental states that are paradigmatically considered intentional whilst conscious are intentional as well whilst unconscious. I defend this view by putting forward a two-dimensional intentional model of unconscious states. The structure of intentionality is usually conceived in a three-dimensional manner - that of subject, content and attitude. Most argue that conscious states are indeterminate with respect to content (Quine, 1960; Davidson 1973; Putnam 1975, 1980; Searle 1991). I agree with the indeterminacy thesis, however not with content indeterminacy. My argument proceeds by unpacking the indeterminacy argument for conscious content, applying it to conscious attitude while arguing it is an equally plausible alternative that the indeterminacy is in the attitudinal component, rather than the content one when it comes to unconscious mental states. This is a view of the unconscious that calls into question the standard model in analytic philosophy. On such a view, only desires are determinate, while other mental attitudes are not. This is essentially a Freudian view of the unconscious (2005, first published 1915). The fourth paper, \u2018Against Unconscious Belief\u2019 discusses propositional attitudes, such as beliefs, when unconscious. For example, I hold a belief \u2018that J.J. Abrams is the worst thing that happened to Sci-Fi genre in the last 50 or so years\u2019 unconsciously. Someone asks me, knowing I am a Sci-Fi fan, what do I think of contemporary genre. Without a second thought I express my unconscious belief of J.J. Abrams. We use the terminology of dispositional belief when it comes to the unconscious one and occurrent when it comes to conscious one. However, we have been taking for granted that beliefs are propositional attitudes, even while unconscious, while, at the same time, remaining committed to certain asymmetry between the conscious and the unconscious. As a result, unconscious beliefs are on par with conscious ones as propositional attitudes, which is in in tension to the presupposed asymmetry. The novelty of my account is that it vindicates the asymmetry thesis without positing a difference in intentional content, but rather saying that the difference is in intentional structure, as stated in the previous paper on the nature of the unconscious in general. My dissertation ends with an analysis of temporal and subjective dimension of experiences in \u2018The Subject of Temporal Experience\u2019. This paper is written in collaboration with Giuliano Torrengo and I thank him for his kindness in allowing me to include it in the dissertation. Most, if not every, mental state we undergo has a subjective structure of being to me or me-ness. We do not undergo experiences of a subject (at least not in the substantial term) of being to me, but rather the mental state as being to me. I argue that the same structure holds with respect to the temporal dimension, i.e. being present to one now or presentness. In other words, most, if not every, mental state we undergo is being present to me now. We experience these features as simply accompanying our experiences of content and attitudes towards those contents. Arguably, these are the only features of our experiences that are of this nature. I argue that this is not a simple correlation but rather there is a stronger metaphysical relation between them. Next, I analyze this relation. Contents nor attitudes we are experiencing do not give us the temporal or subjective dimension. Rather, my suggestion is that me-ness and presentness arise from the same structural characteristic of experience. There is much more to be said on the topic of the structure of phenomenally intentional states. This is another reason why I chose this research. Creatures are conscious in different manners. For example, me and my dog might share some features of experiences, e.g. we both have sensory-visual conscious experience; but differ in other, e.g. a belief that the sensory-visual conscious experience is of cats as opposed to undetached-cat-parts. Although our global conscious features differ, we do share some local similarities, e.g. we see the same shape. What differs is our subjective perspective on them and how we use such features to guide our action and cognition. Consequently, the question are there objective measurable structures of some elements of phenomenally intentional states is, in my opinion, a valuable direction of research in consciousness studies

Does carbohydrate supplementation maximize performance of tennis players?

O tênis é um esporte complexo, influenciado por muitas variáveis, tais como o tipo de quadra (lenta ou rápida), o tipo de bola e o padrão tático do jogador (ofensivo ou defensivo). Esse esporte é considerado uma atividade intermitente de longa duração que, provavelmente, recruta diferentes tipos de substratos energéticos. Portanto, devido às características do tênis, é plausível admitir que o carboidrato seja um importante combustível para essa atividade. O efeito ergogênico do carboidrato já foi comprovado no exercício de endurance. Entretanto, no tênis, poucos estudos investigaram o papel desse nutriente sobre o desempenho. O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar e discutir os estudos disponíveis sobre os efeitos da suplementação de carboidrato no desempenho de tenistas. A literatura atual apresenta escasso número de estudos, com o agravante dos mesmos apresentarem resultados controversos. Portanto, os poucos estudos não permitem que a pergunta levantada no título do artigo seja respondida de maneira satisfatória. A controvérsia observada nos estudos é, provavelmente, consequência de modelos experimentais diferentes, tais como: a duração do treino/jogo/teste, os parâmetros utilizados para medir desempenho, o conteúdo inicial dos estoques de glicogênio e a análise/controle da dieta antes do experimento. Estudos adicionais, em condições reais de jogo, precisam ser conduzidos, a fim de avaliar o real efeito da suplementação de carboidrato sobre o desempenho no tênis.Tennis is a complex sport influenced by many variables, such as the type of court (slow or fast), the ball used and the tactical pattern of the player (offensive or defensive). It is considered a long lasting intermittent activity that probably recruits different energy substrates. Thus, due to its specific characteristics, it is reasonable to expect that carbohydrate might be an important energy substrate for this sport. The ergogenic role of carbohydrate for endurance sports is well known. However, only few studies investigated the role of this nutrient during tennis practice. The aim of the present work is to discuss the data regarding the effect of carbohydrate supplementation on tennis performance. There are only few studies available with controversial results. Therefore, it is not currently possible to draw a final conclusion on this topic. Probably, the controversy is related to different experimental models. Further studies should be carried out in order to assess the real effect of carbohydrate supplementation on tennis performance

Unconscious Content: What Is It Like to Think that P When There Is Nothing It Is Like?

Many have come to argue recently for the Phenomenal Intentionality Thesis (PIT). PIT can be best defined as a reduction of intentional properties to phenomenal properties. One of the challenges in construing intentionality in PIT terms is explaining unconscious thoughts. The issue comes down to the incompatibility of PIT with the claim of Unconscious Intentionality (UI), or more precisely, the claim that there are genuinely intentional unconscious states. There are two ways in which the proponents of PIT proceed. Most philosophers argue for some relation of derivation of unconscious intentional states from conscious phenomenally intentional states. Firstly, I argue that this option is abandoning the program. Thus, the only way one can proceed, if one wishes to remain within the PIT framework, is to argue for genuine unconscious phenomenal intentionality. Secondly, I consider Pitt’s proposal for unconscious phenomenal intentionality. I argue that, while Pitt stays within the PIT framework, his model does not take into account the necessity of the self for phenomenal (un)consciousness. Lastly, I suggest an outline of a third approach, based on Pitt’s proposal, that takes into account the necessity of subject for intentionality or what-is-it-like-for-me-ness

Assessment of floristic diversity, functional composition and management strategy of North Adriatic pastoral landscape (Croatia)

European semi-natural calcareous grasslands are species-rich ecosystems, considered as priority habitats by the European Union (92/43/EEC Directive) and judged worthy of conservation. They are in strong decline in extension and are threatened by abandonment throughout Europe. It is known that grasslands management (grazing, mowing) acts as driving force in plant community diversity, which in turn is an important conservation aim of European environmental policies. The area of current pastoral landscape (about 1000 ha) of the North Adriatic (Æiæarija, Croatia) was studied in order: 1/ to understand which factors drive floristic differentiation – environmental features and/or grassland management conditions, 2/ to identify indicator species sets linked to those factors and 3/ to appraise the effects of management type on the coenological and functional composition of indicator species. 73 phytosociological relevés were carried out; for each of them field data (altitude, aspect, slope and land form), productivity measurements and information on grassland management were collected. Redundancy analysis (RDA) identified a productivity-related soil moisture gradient as the environmental driving force of grassland floristic differentiation. Indicator species analysis (ISA) detected the indicator species sets related to environmental features and management type. The results indicate that undergrazing and the lack of periodic mowing are responsible for the higher total variance of floristic data set explained by environmental parameters rather than by management (use/not use). For the same reasons, the variations that emerged from comparison of the functional characteristics of the indicator species of grazing and of mowing (avoidance strategy, life form, and storage organs) proved more important than those observed in comparing used and abandoned grasslands. The management system adopted (grazing or mowing) appears in turn to be conditioned by the soil moisture/productivity gradient

Effect of management modification on the coenological composition of the North Adriatic pastoral landscape (Ćićarija, Croatia)

The research aim was to assess the dynamics of the North Adriatic pastoral landscape (Ćićarija, Croatia) with regard to the coenological composition of grassland communities, and, more specifically, to: i) assess the current grassland mosaic from a coenological viewpoint; ii) assess the effects of management abandonment on grassland species composition, also taking into account, as a basis for comparison, data on pastoral communities collected in the past decades. To achieve the research aims, 73 phytosociological relevés were carried out; for each of them field data (altitude, aspect, slope, landform) and information on grassland management were collected. Multivariate analysis of phytosociological relevés led to the identification of four vegetation types (Danthonio-Scorzoneretum villosae, Carici humilis-Centaureetum rupestris, Brachypodium rupestre-dominated stands, and Anthoxantho-Brometum erecti), which were linked to landform and to grassland management. Comparison in terms of social behaviour type composition of the grassland communities surveyed in the present study with the ones surveyed in the past decades, highlighted that the current management (grassland abandonment, as well as low intensity grazing and not periodic mowing) is leading to a percentage loss of pasture and meadow characteristic species, in favour of successional and ruderal ones

Endurance exercise bout does not interfere in strength performance of upper limbs

OBJETIVO: O presente estudo avaliou o efeito do exercício de endurance (corrida) sobre o subseqüente desempenho de força de músculos dos membros superiores e do tronco. METODOLOGIA: A amostra foi composta por 13 universitárias, saudáveis e fisicamente ativas. A primeira fase do experimento consistiu na realização de um teste de corrida, simulando uma sessão de treino, com duração de 45 minutos a 70% da FC MAX. Imediatamente após a corrida, foram aplicados testes de força (dinamometria - preensão palmar, teste de 1-RM e teste de repetições máximas a 70%-1RM no supino). A glicemia foi mensurada no início do experimento e imediatamente antes dos testes de força. RESULTADOS: Não foi observada diferença significativa no desempenho dos testes de força após o treino de corrida (dinamometria, 1-RM e REPMAX - sem a prévia execução do treino de corrida - 29,9 ± 3,8 kgf; 34,4 ± 3,1 kg; 1ºset: 12,5 ± 3,3 reps e 2ºset: 11,7 ± 2,7 reps vs. com a prévia execução do treino de corrida - 29,2 ± 3,1 kgf; 33,9 ± 2,5 kg; 1ºset: 13,2 ± 2,1 reps e 2ºset: 12,2 ± 2,8 reps). Com relação à glicemia, não foi detectada alteração significativa durante o experimento. CONCLUSÃO: A execução do treino de corrida não afetou o subseqüente desempenho de força dos membros superiores e do tronco. Esse dado sugere que a interferência, freqüentemente, observada no exercício concorrente, é dependente do grupo muscular treinado. Possivelmente, o efeito adverso induzido pelo treino concorrente, realizado, exclusivamente, com membros inferiores, é decorrente da fadiga residual instalada nos músculos recrutados na atividade anterior. É importante ressaltar que a atividade de endurance não promoveu alteração na concentração plasmática de glicose. A manutenção da glicemia associada à ausência de interferência sobre o desempenho dos testes de força reforça, mais ainda, a hipótese de que o efeito adverso do treinamento concorrente é, provavelmente, causado por alterações periféricas músculo-específicas.AIM: the present study evaluated the effect of endurance exercise (running) on the subsequent strength performance of muscles of upper limbs and trunk. METHODOLOGY: Thirteen healthy female, university students, physically active were selected to compose the sample. The first phase of the experiment the subjects were submitted to an endurance exercise bout (treadmill), simulating a training session, with duration of 45 minutes at 70% of the HRmax. Immediately after the endurance exercise bout, the subjects performed strength tests (Dynamometry test - handgrip, 1RM test and maximal repetitions test at 70%-1RM in the bench press). Glycemia was measured in the beginning of the experiment and immediately before the strength tests. RESULTS: No significant difference was observed in the strength tests performance after the endurance exercise bout (Dynamometry, 1-RM and REPMAX - with no previous endurance exercise - 29.9 ± 3.8 kgf; 34.4 ± 3.1 kg; 1st set 12.5 ± 3.3 reps and 2nd set 11.7 ± 2.7 reps vs. with previous endurance exercise - 29.2 ± 3.1 kgf; 33.9 ± 2.5 kg; 1st set 13.2 ± 2.1 reps and 2nd set 12.2 ± 2.8 reps). Regarding glycemia, no significant alteration was observed during the experiment. CONCLUSION: the endurance exercise bout did not affect the subsequent strength performance of the upper limbs and trunk. This data suggests that the common interference observed in the concurrent training is dependent on which muscular group has been recruited. Possibly, the adverse effect induced by the concurrent training, exclusively performed with lower extremities, is due to the residual fatigue installed in the muscles recruited in the previous activity. It is important to highlight that endurance exercise did not promote alteration in the glucose plasma concentration. The glycemia maintenance associated with the lack of interference on the performance of the strength tests reinforces even more the hypothesis that the adverse effect of the concurrent training is probably caused by muscle-specific peripheral alterations

Folk Knowledge and Perceptions about the Use of Wild Fruits and Vegetables–Cross-Cultural Knowledge in the Pipli Pahar Reserved Forest of Okara, Pakistan

\ua9 2024 by the authors.Wild fruits and vegetables (WFVs) have been vital to local communities for centuries and make an important contribution to daily life and income. However, traditional knowledge of the use of wild fruits is at risk of being lost due to inadequate documentation. This study aimed to secure this knowledge through intermittent field visits and a semi-structured questionnaire. Using various ethnobotanical data analysis tools and SPSS (IBM 25), this study identified 65 WFV species (52 genera and 29 families). These species, mostly consumed as vegetables (49%) or fruits (43%), were predominantly herbaceous (48%) in wild and semi-wild habitats (67%). 20 WFVs were known to local communities (highest RFC), Phoenix sylvestris stood out as the most utilized species (highest UV). Surprisingly, only 23% of the WFVs were sold at markets. The survey identified 21 unique WFVs that are rarely documented for human consumption in Pakistan (e.g., Ehretia obtusifolia, Euploca strigosa, Brassica juncea, Cleome brachycarpa, Gymnosporia royleana, Cucumis maderaspatanus, Croton bonplandianus, Euphorbia prostrata, Vachellia nilotica, Pongamia pinnata, Grewia asiatica, Malvastrum coromandelianum, Morus serrata, Argemone mexicana, Bambusa vulgaris, Echinochloa colonum, Solanum virginianum, Physalis angulata, Withania somnifera, Zygophyllum creticum, and Peganum harmala), as well as 14 novel uses and five novel edible parts. Despite their ecological importance, the use of WFVs has declined because local people are unaware of their cultural and economic value. Preservation of traditional knowledge through education on conservation and utilization could boost economies and livelihoods in this and similar areas worldwide

SEXUALITY IN PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Spolnost je v predšolskem obdobju nekaj povsem normalnega, otroci raziskujejo svoje telo, telo prijateljev, opažajo razlike, poimenuje različne dele telesa in imajo veliko vprašanj, ki so povezana s spolnostjo. Pomembno je, da se vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev v vrtcu zavedajo, da je spolna vzgoja pomembna. Prav je, da otroke naučijo pravilnega poimenovanja delov telesa, opozorijo na razlike med njimi, da jim odgovarjajo na vprašanja, se odzovejo pravilno, kadar vidijo, da se pojavljajo spolne igre in samozadovoljevanje v vrtcu. Diplomsko delo je sestavljeno iz teoretičnega in empiričnega dela. V teoretičnem delu so na kratko predstavljeni razvoj spolnosti, spolna igra, samozadovoljevanje in otroška vprašanja, povezana s spolnostjo ter odgovori nanje. V empiričnem delu diplomskega dela smo raziskali, ali vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev v učnem načrtu načrtujejo temo o spolnosti, ali jim to predstavlja kakšne ovire, s katerimi težavami se soočajo, kako izberejo primeren trenutek za obravnavo spolne tematike. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da več kot polovica vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev teme o spolnosti ne vključijo v učni načrt in so o tematiki premalo poučeni, tudi če ocenjujejo, da so dovolj poučeni, tematike ne načrtujejo. Statistično značilnih razlik med vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev ni bilo zaznati. Večina tistih, ki temo načrtuje, dela v skupini otrok drugega starostnega obdobja in nekaj v kombiniranih oddelkih.Sexuality in preschool era is something absolutely natural, children explore their bodies, their friends’ bodies, notice differences, name different parts of bodies and have many questions regarding sexuality. The important thing is that the nursery nurse and nursery assistant at the nursery are aware that sexual education is important. It is the right thing to teach the children the appropriate names for body parts, differences among them, to answer children’s questions and react correctly when notice sexual games and masturbation in the nursery. Diploma work has two parts, theoretical and empirical part. In the theoretical part there is a short summary of sexual development, sexual game, masturbation and children’s questions related to sexuality and answers to them. In the empirical part we have researched whether the nursery nurses and nursery assistants plan a topic of sexuality within the curriculum, if it causes them any obstacles, with which problems they encounter and how they choose the appropriate time for this topic. It was discovered that more than a half of the nursery nurses and nursery assistants do not include the sexuality topic into the curriculum and are not educated enough on the subject. Even if they are educated enough, most of them do not include the above mentioned topic. There was no statistical difference found between nursery nurses and nursery assistants. The majority of those who plan this topic work with children aged 3-6 years and some from the combined classes