Kuulo Kalamees – 75

Kuulo Kalamees was born in Tartu on April 15, 1934. In 1958, he graduated from the University of Tartu as a biologist-botanist, his thorough diploma paper treated the agarics of southeastern Estonia. In 1975, he defended his thesis “Agarics in Estonia. Taxonomy, ecology and distribution” for an academic degree of Doctor of Science. His first articles in the field of mycology were published in his student’s years already. During the fifty years he has published over 200 scientific and popular-scientific papers, including over 20 books of which he is author, co-author or editor. The bulk of the papers published by Kalamees are about agarics. The routes of his study trips extend from Estonia to the Russian Far East, but also to Finland, Norway, France, Italy, Newfoundland, Greenland. Since 1997, he is a Professor Emeritus of Tartu University. Kuulo Kalamees is one of the founders of “Folia Cryptogamica Estonica”.

Checklist of the species of the genera Amanita and Limacella (Agaricomycetes) in Estonia

19 species, 2 varieties and 1 form of genus Amanita and 3 species of genus Limacella (Agaricomycetes) have been recorded in Estonia. A checklist of these species with habitat, phenology and occurrence data are presented.

Looduslike radionukliidide kontsentreerumine põlevkivi põletamisel ning nende atmosfäärne levi ja sadenemine elektrijaamade ümbruses

Väitekirja elektrooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsiooneMe kõik paikneme looduslikku päritolu kiirguse mõjuväljas. Selle hulgas on näiteks nii kosmiline kui ka maapinnast tulenev kiirgus ning toidu ja joogiga sissevõetavad radionukliidid. Nimetatud allikatest saadavad aastased kiirgusdoosid elanikele ületavad mitmeid kordi doose, mille allikaks on tehislikud protsessid, nt teatud meditsiiniprotseduurid, tuumajaamad, fossiilkütuste tööstus. Maapõuest pärineva kiirguse allikateks on peamiselt uraani ja tooriumi (lisaks veel nende lagunemisproduktide) lagunemisel tekkiv kiirgus. Evolutsioon on siinkohal abiks olnud ning inimesed on kohanenud elama neid ümbritsevas kiirgusfoonis. Probleeme võib tekkida olukorras, kus maapõuest võetud maavara töötlemisel vastavad radionukliidid kontsentreeruvad tööstusprotsessi käigus (nt põletusprotsessides) ning võidakse osaliselt emiteerida lendtuha ja põlemisgaasidega ümbritsevasse keskkonda. Kaks maailma suurimat põlevkivil töötavat elektrijaama on Ida-Virumaal töös olnud juba suurusjärgus 50 aastat ning aastas põletatav põlevkivi kogus on varieerunud 30 miljoni tonni (1980’datel) ning umbes 12 miljoni tonni vahel tänapäeval. Selle aja jooksul on tekkinud suurel hulgal põlemisjääke ning atmosfäärseid emissioone. Tartu Ülikooli Füüsika Instituudis koostatud doktoritöös uuriti, millistes kontsentratsioonides erinevaid radionukliide nendest elektrijaamadest keskkonda emiteeritud on ning kui suurel maa-alal nende sadenemine tagasi maapinnale toimunud on. Vastava töö käigus selgus, et: - Põlevkivis looduslikult leiduvad radionukliidid kontsentreeruvad kuni 10-kordselt lendtuhas, mis atmosfääri paisatakse; - Lendtuhk ja radionukliidid on kandunud üle 50 km kaugusele elektrijaamadest. Siiski enim on koormatud ala, mis jääb mõne km ulatusse jaamadest; - Tänu pidevatele tehnoloogilistele uuendustele on emiteeritava lendtuha hulk tänapäevaks vähenenud kuni 100 korda võrreldes 1970’date ja 1980’datega! - Jaamade pikk tööperiood (ca. 50 aastat) on tekitanud ulatusliku keskkonda emiteeritud ning seal kontsentreerunud radionukliidide voo. Et selgitada välja täpsed kiirgusdoosid jaamade lähistel elavatele inimestele, on vaja teostada jätku-uuringuid.Natural radiation sources surround us constantly. This includes cosmic rays from space, radionuclides in the Earth’s crust, water and foodstuff. Yearly doses from these sources surpass sever times the doses received by the public from artificial sources, such as certain medical procedures, nuclear industry and fossil fuel industry. Radiation originating from the Earth’s crust is mostly caused by the decay of unstable uranium and thorium isotopes as well as their own decay products. Evolution has played its roll here, as living organisms have adapted to cope with the constant radiation surrounding them. Problems can arise when material obtained from the Earth’s crust is further industrially processed. This may cause concentration of these radionuclides in by-products and their releases to the surrounding environment during combustion processes. Two of the world’s largest oil shale-fired power plants (PP) have been operating in Ida-Virumaa around 50 years. Around 30 million tonnes of oil shale were burned per year during 1980s, which has decreased down to around 12 million tonnes per year nowadays. This has resulted in significant emission loads of radionuclides to the atmosphere. The concentrations and magnitudes of radionuclide emissions to the surrounding environment and their corresponding deposition loads were studied in a PhD work conducted at the Institute of Physics in University of Tartu. Within this study, it was found that: - Radionuclides concentrate up to 10 times in fly ashes, especially in the fine fraction that escapes the filter systems. - The fly ash and radionuclides are carried and deposited at distances over 50 km from the PPs. Largest deposition flux is however within 2 km from the plants. - Fly ash and radionuclide emissions have reduced 1 to 2 orders of magnitude compared to 1980s, mostly due to reducing the amount of burned oil shale and significant renovations done on the PPs. - The long operational period of the oil shale PPs has caused an accumulation of deposited radionuclides in the surrounding environment. The determination of potential doses to humans and the environment especially in the vicinity of the PPs requires further studies

In memoriam: Ain Raitviir

On September 17, 2006, the distinguished Estonian mycologist, Ain Raitviir, passed away at his home in Tartu County. He was a person with a deep knowledge of mycology and general biology and with wide-ranging interests and talents in humanities.

Hazardous radioactivity levels and heavy mineral concentrations in beach sediments of Lake Peipsi, northeastern Estonia

The present study discusses results of heavy mineral analyses and radioactivity of beach sediments of Lake Peipsi. Such analyses are commonly done globally, but had not yet been conducted for the fourth largest lake in Europe. The average heavy mineral content in Lake Peipsi beach sediments along the northern and western coast is higher than usual for Estonian coastal and Quaternary sediments. Concomitantly, elevated radioactivity levels have been measured in sev- eral places, with the highest concentrations observed at Alajõe (1885.5 Bq/kg), which is over five times more than the recommended limit. The aim of the present study is to find sites with higher radioactivity levels, because the northern coast of Lake Peipsi is a well-known recreational area

Development of small lakes in Estonia: paleolimnological studies

In this paper we give an brief overview of the paleolimnological studies revealing the development of Estonian lakes and their surrounding landscapes during the Holocene. The paper is mostly focused on the studies carried out in the Institute of Ecology (IoE) at Tallinn University. Development of lakes and their ecological environment can be roughly divided into two major periods: natural stage from emergence of lakes after withdrawal of continental ice sheet to signs of first anthropogenic impacts and the period where the human activity has clearly influenced the lake and its environment

Le développement des petits lacs d’Estonie : études paléolimnologiques

Dans cette étude, nous donnons un aperçu des études paléolimnologiques qui révèlent comment les lacs estoniens et les paysages qui les entourent se sont développés au cours de l’Holocène. L’étude se concentre principalement sur les études menées par l’Institut d’Écologie de l’Université de Tallinn. Le développement des lacs et de leur environnement écologique peut se diviser sommairement en deux grandes périodes : l’étape naturelle allant de l’émergence des lacs après le retrait des glaciers continentaux aux signes des premières perturbations d’origine anthropique, et la période où l’activité humaine a clairement influencé le lac et son environnement

Mycobiota of Estonia

Seentel on looduses oluline osa - orgaanilise aine lagundajatena on nad asendamatud ökosüsteemide aineringes. Niiviisi osalevad seened ökosüsteemide sekundaarses produktsioonis, luues ühtlasi maakera loodusressursse. Inimese praktilises tegevuses on seentel tohutu tähtsus nii negatiivses kui ka positiivses tähenduses. Piisab, kui mõelda söödavatele, sealhulgas viljeldavatele seentele, mitmesuguseid keemilisi aineid produtseerivatele liikidele, ravimseentele, mürkseentele, mükooside tekitajatele, fütopatogeensetele seentele, hallitusseentele jpt. Seepärast väärivad seened igakülgset tundmaõppimist ning oma igapäevases tegevuses tuleb meil nendega tõsiselt arvestada. Eesti territoorium pakub seente leviku uurimise seisukohast laialdasemat huvi Euroopas tervikuna. Tänu Eesti looduslikele (botaanilistele, geograafilistele, geoloogilistele) iseärasustele on meie ala omapäraseks ristumiskohaks boreaalsete ja nemoraalsete, mõningal määral ka pontiliste seeneliikide areaalidele. Seetõttu on Eesti seenestik koosseisult mitmekesine ja liigirohke. Eesti seentest on kahe sajandi vältel kirjutatud hulgaliselt nii teaduslikke kui populaarteaduslikke töid. Viimastel aastakümnetel on ilmunud rida raamatuid mitmesuguste seenerühmade kohta, sealhulgas ka ülevaated meie parimate söögiseente perekondadest. Kõiki Eesti suurseeni käsitlev raamat “Seened” (koostaja K. Kalamees) ilmus juba 1966. aastal. Eesti pisiseeni laiemale üldsusele tutvustavat kirjandust on seevastu napilt, ometi on näiteks seente poolt põhjustatud taimehaiguste tundmine nii põllumajandus- kui metsamajanduspraktikas väga oluline. Eesti seente loend on meil küll ilmunud juba kahe raamatuna “Eesti seente koondnimestik” (Järva & E. Parmasto, 1980; Järva, I. Parmasto & Vaasma, 1998), kuid need mõlemad kujutavad endast seeneliikide kommentaarideta nimestikku koos viidetega vastavale kirjandusele (kuni aastani 1990). Käesolev raamat annab ülevaate umbes 4/5 Eestis kasvavatest seeneliikidest, püüdes seejuures neid lühidalt iseloomustada süstemaatiliselt, ökoloogiliselt, levikuliselt, bioloogiliselt ning kasu või kahju seisukohast inimesele. Lisaks sellele on raamatus iseloomustatud erinevaid seente kasvukohatüüpe Eestis, meie seente geograafiat, ökoloogiat, seenekaitset ning seente osa inimese elus. Paraku ei ole probleemide käsitlus raamatus siiski täielik, kuna Eestis ei ole veel mitmeid seenerühmi nimetatud küsimustega seonduvalt läbi uuritud. Nii on näiteks toitumisrühmade, kasvukohtade ja levilatüüpidega seotud üldistav analüüs meil seni tehtud vaid lehikseente osas. Käesolev raamat on teaduslik teatmeteos Eesti seentest. See ei ole ei määraja ega mükoloogia õpik ning seetõttu ei leia siin põhjalikku käsitlemist seente ehituse, bioloogia, paljunemise ja eluviisi probleemid. Neid küsimusi vaadeldakse üksikute seenerühmade juures vaid sedavõrd, kuivõrd nad osutuvad vajalikuks Eestist leitud seente iseloomustamisel. Mükoloogiline oskussõnastik hõlbustab raamatu kasutamist. Võimalikult täpselt on raamatus seeneliikide kõrval viidatud ka nende peremeesorganismidele koos ladinakeelsete nimetustega. Eesti kodumaistele puu- ja põõsaliikidele, levinumatele köögi- ja põlluviljadele, viljapuudele ja marjapõõsastele ning samuti kodu- ja metsloomadele on tekstis viidatud ainult eestikeelsete nimedega, vastavad ladinakeelsed nimed tuuakse eri nimestikuna raamatu lõpus. Raamatu töömahukast ning aegavõtvast kirjutamisest, koostamisest ja toimetamisest on osa võtnud palju kutselisi ja mitmeid harrastusmükolooge, samuti teistegi erialade esindajaid. Raamatu koostajana ja peatoimetajana avaldan siirast tänu kõigile autoritele ja kaastoimetajatele, ingliskeelsete tekstide tõlkijale M.Roosile ning keelelisele korrektorile M. Johansonile, CD versiooni tegijale ja kujundajale I. Kübarsepale. Raamatu failide esialgse töötlejana väärib kahtlemata tänu OÜ Eesti Loodusfoto. Oma käsikirjaliste materjalide kasutamise võimaldamise ning samuti kaastöö eest mitmete erinevate lõikude sisulisel täiendamisel ja parandamisel pälvivad lisaks neile tänu A. Jakobson, K. Jürgens, A. Kalamees, L. Kalamees, M. Laane, T. Randlane ja I. Saar. Käsikirja teksti trükkimise ja vormistamise eest väärib siirast tänu M. Vaasma. Eriline tänu kuulub posthuumselt raamatu illustraatorile kunstnik Georg Štšukinile, kelle sule ja pintsli alt on tulnud värvitahvlid ning mustvalged joonised.An investigation into Estonian mycobiota, including taxonomy, ecology, distribution and data on its resources, is presented in this book. A contemporary interpretation of the distribution of Estonian fungi between the kingdoms of Eucaryota and their systematic arrangement based on the principles of Hawksworth et al.(1995), as well as the morphology, anatomy, ecology, phenology, distribution, the profit or damage from the human point of view are considered in detail at the level of different taxonomic units from phyla to species. Trophic groups and sites, and the peculiarities of the geographical distribution of fungi in Estonia are analysed. Edible mushrooms, their resources and cultivation in Estonia, the nutritive value and ways of preservation, mycetism, mycotoxicoses and mycoses in man and domestic animals, poisonous fungi and medical uses of fungi, plant diseases caused by fungi, and dyeing of textile fabrics with fungal pigments are treated in separate chapters. Particular attention is devoted to the principles of fungus protection and the species included in the Red Data Book of Estonia and to those under state protection. The priority in the fungus investigations in Estonia belongs to Fischer and Hupel (1777). That is particularly evident in the works of Fischer (1778, 1784, 1791), Grindel (1803), Friebe (1805), Weinmann (1836), Dietrich (1856, 1859), Bucholtz (1904, 1916), Lepik (1930, 1940), Witkowsky (1934), Leisner (1937, 1938). First more concrete data of scientific significance are found in Dietrich’s and Bucholtz’s works which contain studies on the fungi of the Baltic Region of that time. From the period of 1925–1943 very important are the mycological and phytopathological investigations of prof. E. Lepik. The research centres were situated in Tartu. On E. Lepik’s initiative a number of amateur mycologists like N. Witkowsky, T. Leisner, A. Rühl and V. Pärtelpoeg joined in the work. In Estonia, the investigation into the systematic, ecology, distribution, pathology and coenology of fungi became more active in the 1950s, when studies were started by E. Parmasto, V. Lasting, P. Põldmaa, K. Kalamees. In the 1960s and later A. Raitviir, L. Järva, A.-L. Sõmermaa, M. Hanso, H. Karis, J. Sarv, K. Kask, B. Kullman, I. Parmasto, M. Vaasma, T. Normet, H. Lõiveke, P. Soobik joined in the research. The amateur mycologists H. Kelder, G. Shtshukin, V. Liiv and S. Veldre also took up training for mycological investigations. At present the research centre of Estonian mycology is the Institute of Zoology and Botany (department of mycology) by the Estonian Agricultural University. A new generation of mycologists, among them U. Kõljalg, K. Põldmaa have appeared. The traditional classical direction in Estonian mycological research is being replaced by a new one at the genetical and molecular level. Since 1777 almost 4000 species of fungi have been recorded in Estonia (cf. Järva, 1982; Parmasto, 1989). They have been treated in nearly 2000 books and articles (cf. Järva & E. Parmasto, 1980; Järva, I. Parmasto & Vaasma, 1998). Since 1950, 159 000 specimens of fungi have been collected for the fungus herbarium of the Institute of Zoology and Botany. The Estonian Mycological Society (until June 2000 the mycology section of the Estonian Naturalists' Society) has about 30 members. The composition of Estonian mycobiota is diverse, rich in species and resources, since Estonia lies in the temperate mixed forest zone of the northern hemisphere (Kalamees, 1995). In Estonia we find favourable growth conditions for both boreal coniferous forest fungus species and nemoral deciduous forest species. As the northern border of the distribution area of oak runs through South Finland, there are good growth conditions for practically all the fungus species connected with oak in Estonia. This is the reason why our mycobiota is considerably richer in comparison with that of the other northern countries. The development and character of Estonian mycobiota have been, to a great extent, influenced by the differences between the geological history of West ad East Estonia as well as the peculiarities of the soils, flora and climate in these regions. The differences in the base rock of North and South Estonia are equally important. West and North Estonia, including the islands of the Baltic Sea, considerably differ from South and East Estonia from the mycogeographical point of view as concerns, at least, mycorrhizal Agaricales. As regards the species composition of Agaricales, West and North Estonia are similar to Central and even to South Europe. The most important factors from the point of view of fungi in West and North Estonia are the abundance of broad-leaved tree species and calcareous soils on the Silurian and Ordovician limestone base rock. For these reasons Estonia seems to occupy an important position on the eastern and northern (north-eastern) borders of many nemoral fungus species spread in West Europe. Sometimes, however, the eastern (north-eastern) and northern borders of those species run in the close vicinity of the territory of Estonia, in Russia and South Finland, respectively. Owing to all the factors mentioned above the species composition of fungi in West and North Estonia is richer and more varied than that in East and South Estonia (which is also the case with the flora of higher plants). For instance, nearly 50 species of Estonian agarics grow only (or preferably) in West and North Estonia and on the islands (Kalamees & Lasting, 1973c). The mycobiota of Estonian forests is characterized by the domination of mycorrhizal fungi and litter saprobes (Kalamees, 1980a,c, 1982). There are few humus saprobes among forest fungi, their role is more important in forest type groups with a weak or missing litter horizon, such as alvar, dry boreo- nemoral, fresh boreo-nemoral, floodplain and paludified forests. The existence of wood saprobes and parasites, as well as leaf- and needle-debris saprobes is very characteristic of forest mycobiota. In the formation of the mycobiota of forest type groups the carbonate content of soils and their moisture regimes are of paramount importance. The mycobiota of Estonian meadows consists of humus saprobes, and lots of mycorrhizal fungi in parkland meadows and litter saprobes in denser stand groups (Kalamees, 1979c, 1980a, 1982). In parkland meadows quite frequent are also wood saprobes. The composition of the mycobiota of meadows is, to quite a great extent, influenced by human activities, mainly by grazing cattle and mowing. Pastures are, for instance, always rich in coprotrophs. The determining factor in the fungus composition of dry and fresh meadows is the carbonate content of the soils. The poverty of mycobiota in paludified meadows mainly accounts for excessive moisture. The mycobiota of Estonian mires basically consists of hygrophilous humus and moss saprobes (Kalamees, 1982). As concerns forested mires a few mycorrhizal fungi are also found. The main factor determining the character of mire mycobiota is the continuous excess moisture. The calcareousness of the soils does not exert significant effect on the mycobiota of mires. The mycobiota of Estonian boreal heath grasslands is very poor in species due to the extremely infavourable growth conditions (Kalamees, 1980a). The raw-humus nature of the forest litter horizon and high acidity do not create necessary conditions for the development of litter saprobes. The mycobiota of coastal dunes is poor in species but very peculiar in its species composition: psammophilous humus saprobes and xerophilous mycorrhizal fungi of willows and pines grow there. Sandy inland plains, which represent secondarily outcropping unfixed sands, are dry and therefore offer favourable growth conditions for only a few fungus species. Vegetation of outcrops in Estonia as well as halophilous coastal areas, off-shore bars, nitrophilous areas at the nesting places of birds, etc. are also very poor in fungus species (Kalamees, 1980a). A number of water fungi grow in Estonia. They are found on plant remnants deposited on the bottom of water-bodies, on stalks of live plants and on other organic substrate in water. They mainly belong to Hyphomycetes (A. Kalamees, 1989). Macrofungi cannot grow in water, but favourable conditions for the development of many Helotiales are created in reed-beds and other groups of water plants as a result of the accumulation of decaying plant remnants after the flood has sunk. The mycobiota of ruderal and cultivated vegetation is highly varied and peculiar (Kalamees, 1981). The basic factor determining its composition is the humus content in the soil. Mainly humus saprobes grow on these sites, but coprotrophs are also often found. Lots of mycorrhizal fungi grow in parks. Estonian mycobiota is rich in edible fungi being represented by almost 400 species. The general resources of Estonian fungi reach to 36.5 thousand tons (Kalamees & Vaasma, 1980). Among forest types with stands ready for felling the following types can be undoubtedly considered the most productive: Vaccinium uliginosum pine type with 229 kg per hectare, Cladonia pine type with approximately 215 kg per hectare and Calluna pine type with approximately 239 kg per hectare (Kalamees & Vaasma, 1980; Kalamees & Silver, 1988, 1993). According to the latest data it is the young Cladonia type (25 years old) that with 569 kg per hectare exceeds manyfold the fungus yields of any other Estonian forest site. The most productive forests, as concerns the fungus yield, lie in North, South-East and South-West Estonia, and on the island of Saaremaa. As concerns fungus species, the following can be considered to be the most productive: Lactarius rufus with 495 kg per hectare, Suillus bovinus with 165 kg per hectare, Suillus variegatus with 129 kg per hectare and Russula decolorans with 94 kg per hectare (Kalamees & Silver, 1988). Among the 200 species of poisonous macrofungi have been recorded in Estonia, there are three deadly poisonous ones: Amanita virosa, A. phalloides and Inocybe erubescens. Mycetism has been rare in Estonia. Amanita virosa was the reason of four poisonings causing death during the period of 1935–1998 (see Lepik, 1935a; Witkovsky, 1935). Some quite serious poisonings were caused by Inocybe erubescens, Gyromitra esculenta, Cortinarius sp. (subg. Phlegmacium, sect. Xanthophylli), Paxillus involutus and Phaeolepiota aurea in recent years. Relatively many cases of mycotoxicoses in cattle recorded in Estonia during the last half a century were caused by spoilt feed. Dermatomycoses and candidiasis quite wide-spread mycoses are in people and domestic animals and aspergillose and trichohytosis in domestic animals and poultry. In Estonia there are about 150 species of macrofungi belonging to medical fungi, 3/4 of them for their antibiotic qualities. In fact, only 2 species have been used for this purpose. Claviceps purpurea is the only pharmacological fungus medicine used. In folk medicine Inonotus obliquus is used in the cure of cancer. There are about half a thousand fungus species in Estonia which pigments could be used for dyeing textile fabrics. However, as a matter of fact, they have never been used for this purpose. The basic principle of the fungus protection in Estonia consists in the protection of fungus habitats (Kalamees, 1988). As a result, we can protect successfully both the fungus resources and separate species requiring protection. The Red Data Book of Estonia contains 91 fungus species, the list of fungi under protection contains 30 species (Kalamees & Vaaasma, 1998).Käsikirja valmimist rahastas Eesti Teadusfond ja Eesti Haridusministeerium