Field Pea Diversity and Its Contribution to Farmers\u27 Livelihoods in Northern Ethiopia

Field pea is grown by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia as a source of food, fodder, income, and soil fertility. This study explores intraspecific diversity of field pea and its contribution to farmers\u27 livelihoods in two agroecological zones of South Tigray and South Wollo, northeastern Ethiopia. Interviews were conducted with 168 farming households. The number of varieties and the Shannon Diversity Index (SDI) were higher in South Tigray (seven varieties, 0.35 SDI) than South Wollo (two varieties, 0.025 SDI). Farmers in South Tigray plant field pea during two growing seasons, allowing for integration of multiple varieties into their farming systems. The price of one field pea type from South Tigray known as “dekoko” was twice as high as other field pea varieties, most likely due to high demand and relatively low supply. Key informants reported “dekoko” has become less common in their communities, with diseases and pests reported as major production constraints. Multistakeholder collaboration is recommended to enhance the contribution of field pea to Ethiopian farming systems

Reduced Tillage and Intercropping as a Means to Increase Yield and Financial Return in the Drylands of Tigray, northern Ethiopia: A Case Study under Rainfed and Irrigation Conditions

Intensive tillage is a major sustainability concern in cereal dominated cropping systems in the drylands of Tigray, Ethiopia. Hence, on-farm trials were conducted to investigate the yield and economic advantage of reduced tillage and intercropping for two seasons. A factorial experiment in a complete randomized block design was carried out at Adigudom located in Hintalo-Wajirat district in South-Eastern Tigray in 2014 (rain-fed) and 2015 (irrigated). The experiment consisted of four tillage frequencies (zero, one, two and four) and three types of cropping systems (sole maize, sole soybean and maize-soybean intercropping) in three/four replications. Maize, variety “Melkassa 2”, and soybean, variety “Awassa 91” were used. Grain and biomass yields, and harvest index of both crops were analysed. Yield advantage of intercropping was evaluated using land equivalent ratio (LER) and partial budget analysis was used for the financial evaluation. The grain and biomass yields of both crops were significantly increased (p<0.05) as the tillage frequencies increased from zero to four in both seasons but the frequent tillage with sole cropping was not economically viable as the two times tillage with maize-soybean intercropping gave 126% greater net benefit compared to the four times tillage sole maize, which is practiced by farmers in the study area. The net benefit was strongly influenced by the main effects of tillage and intercropping in both seasons (p<0.001) and by their interaction in 2014 (p<0.05). Significantly higher LER (1.87-2.12) was recorded from maize-soybean intercropping over sole cropping in all the tillages and both seasons. Hence, two alternative options are suggested that farmers could apply in the drylands of Tigray: (i) keeping the sole cropping culture of maize production, and reducing number of tillages from 4 to 2 that would give 374%and 705% Marginal Rate of Return (MRR), respectively, under the rainfed and irrigated conditions compared to zero tillage sole maize; or (ii) intercropping maize with soybean and reducing tillage frequency from 4to 2 that would give 608% and 585% MRR in the respective growing seasons, compared to zero tillage maize-soybean intercropping. Taking these results into account, two times tillage combined with maize-soybean intercropping can be a good option in dryland areas of Tigray to achieve higher total intercrop yield at a low cost and larger LER. Moreover, reduced tillage can minimize soil degradation and benefit farmers with poor access to draft power or female-headed households constrained with labour for ploughing.Keywords: Tillage; Intercropping; Maize; Soybean; Tigray; Ethiopia.Please find erratum for this article here: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/mejs.v11i1.1

Growing apple (Malus domestica) under tropical mountain climate conditions in Northern Ethiopia

Lack of effective chilling during the dormant season is one of the major problems when apples are growing under a tropical climate. We evaluated the response of different apple cultivars (Golden Delicious, Gala, Fuji, Granny Smith and Jonagold) grown on M9 rootstock with different dormancy-management practices. The trials were carried out between 2004 and 2006 in a tropical mountain area (Tigray, Ethiopia), where chilling conditions are poor with the aim of improving and synchronizing the bud break and the blossoming period of these apple cultivars. Two-year-old well-feathered trees were planted in two experimental trial sites in it randomized complete block design. Trees were subjected to the following treatments in two sets of experiments: one defoliation per year only; two defoliations per year, one defoliation followed by 1% hydrogen cyanamide (Dormex) treatment; one defoliation followed by 2% Dormex treatment; one defoliation followed by 40% winter oil; one defoliation followed by 0.5% Dormex and 2% winter oil; and a control with no defoliation or dormancy breaking treatments. The result show positive effects of the dormancy breaking agents oil the productivity of the trees after defoliation, with comparable results for the effectiveness of both Dormex and winter oil. There were On statistically significant differences between the Dormex closes. The defoliation treatment alone Was not sufficient to break dormancy for the cultivars Golden Delicious, Granny Smith or Gala but showed promising results with dormancy breaking Jonagold. Yields increased as a result of better flowering time synchronization within a tree but even with the dormancy treatments the length of the flowering period was still spread over five weeks, where under it more temperate climate it lasted two to three weeks. The average fruit weight of Jonagold and Granny Smith can be considered as it good fruit quality while the fruit of other diploid cultivars like Golden, Gala and Fuji were rather small, which indicates chat fruit thinning by hand will be it necessity For these cultivars. Red colouration of the apples oil the cultivars Gala and Jonagold was excellent and meets the standards necessary for commercialization of these fruits. The sugar concentration of the fruits and the fruit firmness at harvest was high. The results of these first trials indicate that it is possible to develop new apple production in the mountain region of Tigray, Ethiopia

Sustainable management practices for durum wheat production: Analyzing specific agronomic interventions on productivity, grain micronutrient content, and quality

As compared with single agronomic crop management practices during grain formation, knowledge about integrated agronomic management practices on grain mineral composition and grain technological properties in durum wheat is limited. This knowledge is important for determining management strategies aimed at increasing grain yield without affecting grain nutritional quality. Integrated agronomic practices such as foliar nutrient application × seeding rate × varieties combined with growing locations were investigated to evaluate the dynamics of yield and grain quality traits. Two durum wheat varieties, three-level of micronutrients (i.e. control, FeSO4, and ZnSO4), and four levels of seeding rate (i.e. 100, 125, 150, and 175 kg ha−1) were arranged in split-split plot design under two different growing locations (environments). The main plots were assigned to the varieties, subplots to micronutrients, and sub-sub plots to the seeding rate treatments. Zinc and iron were applied in a form of ZnSO4 and FeSO4 at the early flowering stage, both at a rate of 25 kg ha−1. Results showed a linear increment in biomass (21.5%) and grain yield (23.5%) under a high seeding rate, even though the 1000-grain weight, the number of grains spike−1, spike length, and the number of grains spike−1 were decreased. Higher varietal and environmental response of seeding rate was observed between varieties. The grain protein content, gluten, and zeleyn index decreased as the seeding rate increased. Grain micronutrient content was significantly influenced by seeding rate and varietal difference. The grain protein content was higher in a dryland environment than in a wet environment. A combined use of density-tolerant varieties, high seeding rate, and foliar-based iron application can improve the grain yield from 2.01 to 3.20 t ha−1 under a potential environment. Hence, all stakeholders should consider the genotype (G), environment (E), management (M), and their synergies, as far as grain yield and quality are considered simultaneously

Improving crop production by field management strategies using crop water productivity modeling: Case study of tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) production in Tigray, Ethiopia.

Increasing food production to feed the fast growing world population particularly in developing countries relies on two options: either increase the arable land or improve the productivity of the existing cultivated land. This research focuses on the highly populated highlands of Tigray (northern Ethiopia), where improving the productivity of land is the only option for sustainable food production. In the drought-prone and highly degraded highlands of Tigray, rainfed cereal production is restricted by low and highly variable rainfall with common occurrence of dry spells during the cropping season on the one hand, and low levels of soil fertility on the other hand. Water saving techniques and applying inorganic fertilizers to intensify the staple food production are essential to maximize the productivity of the land. Elaborated strategies developed by crop growth models can be used for designing and better understanding the impact of the aforementioned strategies. In this study the water productivity model AquaCrop developed by FAO was used as a tool to test different field management strategies for improving productivity of tef under the local environmental conditions in the highlands of Tigray. The model estimates yield by relating crop transpiration with biomass and yield production and allows the users to simulate yield under various conditions. Tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) is an endemic cereal crop and staple diet in Ethiopia. It is highly preferred by the farmers not only in view of its adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions but also for its high market value of both grain and crop residue (straw). However, low productivity is often reported mainly due to water and fertility stress. Considering this context, a research project was designed with field experiments in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with split plot arrangement, conducted in 2008, 2009 and 2010 at two sites located in the south-east and east of Tigray in two soil types. Five levels of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers (no input, 50%, 75%, 100% and 150% of the recommended doses) were applied to both rainfed and irrigated plots. The objectives of the study were: a) to gain insight in the response of tef to water and soil fertility stress;b) to obtain the necessary field data to calibrate and validate the AquaCrop model for the local crop tef, considering both water and fertility stress; c) to investigate the effect of inorganic fertilizer application (N and P) on yield and yield components of the crop; d) to evaluate the impact of supplementary irrigation (SI, a practice of applying a limited amount of water to essentially rainfed crops when the rainfall fails to provide sufficient moisture for normal growth) in mitigating the impact of dry spells during the growing season and to improve the productivity of tef;e) to assess the nutrient use efficiency of tef in different conditions of nutrient availability and supplementary irrigation; and f) to test different field management strategies to improve the productivity of tef in Tigray. The field experiments, complemented with a mini-lysimeter experiment conducted in 2008 and 2009, were used to gain insight in the response of tef to water and soil fertility stress and to calibrate and validate the AquaCrop model for tef under water and fertility stress conditions. Additionally, data collected during field experiments conducted in 2006 and 2007 in the frame of master research were also used as additional inputs for the calibration process. The results of the crop response revealed that the water sensitive stage for tef is at or around flowering. Supplementary irrigation (SI) during this growth stage produced a surplus of 98 to 111% in yield (Y), 52 to 54% in water use efficiency (WUE) and 41 to 88% in dry aboveground biomass (B) compared to rainfed crops. SI also improved the uptake of nutrients, thereby increasing the quality of the grain and also advancing the recovery capacity and agronomic efficiency of the crop. Similarly, the effect of various nutrient levels (N and P) showed a significant impact on Y, WUE and B. Y, WUE and B were significantly lower in plots without fertilizer (control), started to increase strongly if a small amount of the fertilizer (50% less than the recommended application dose) was applied and continued to increase until it reached the optimal rate (100% recommended dose). The optimal fertilizer application dose resulted in a significant increase in Y (43 to 69%), WUE (86 to 90%), B (55 to 63%) and total uptake of both nutrients. However, the crop s efficiency to convert the applied nutrients into marketable yield was higher in the lowest nutrient application (50% less than the recommended). This study demonstrates that application of inorganic fertilizers more than the recommended dose is not advised as this did not resulted in an additional output, both in limited and unlimited water conditions. The simulation analysis with AquaCrop revealed that the model was adequately able to simulate the yield of tef in response to water and fertility stress under various environmental conditions in Tigray. This was confirmed by accurate estimation of the soil water balance and canopy development that determine the crop transpiration and the biomass and yield production. With the calibrated and validated model, three management strategies were evaluated in four locations and on three soil types in the region, including soil fertility management, early sowing and applying a small irrigation dose (deficit irrigation, DI) around flowering. The effect of soil fertility management was assessed by simulating the production of tef according to the farmers practice sown at the end of July or beginning of August for six predetermined soil fertility categories. The high soil fertility levels (0 to 40% soil fertility stress) in locations with relatively good rainfall and on soils with a relatively high available water level (clay loam) resulted in low failure years (0-13%). However, high yield production was limited due to frequently occurring episodes of water stress during critical growth stages like flowering. This finding confirmed that a balanced rainfall distribution is more important than the total amount of rainfall, and urges for planning of optimal sowing time and / or DI if fertility levels are sufficiently high. In areas with relatively less rainfall, the estimated risk of failure years was 29%. Yet, on sandy loam and silty clay soils with poor and very poor soil fertility levels (60 to 75% soil fertility stress), the failure years reached 60-100% in areas with relatively low rainfall. The production of tef according to the farmers sowing practice is strongly limited by water stress as maturity is far from reached at the end of the rainy season. Planning for optimal sowing time is therefore crucial. For this purpose, the DEPTH criterion (Raes et al., 2004) that considers a cumulative rainfall depth of 40 mm during a maximum of four successive days was used to determine the onset of the growing period. The model simulations suggested 16 to 20 July (2-3 weeks earlier than the normal practice) as optimal sowing time for tef. For this period, the risk of failure years was considerably reduced while the proportion of moderate and high yield production was increased. Additional water supply combined with early sowing was found to further improve tef yield as the water demand of the crop exceeds the rainfall supply in the region. Given the possibility to collect, by surface runoff, a small amount of excess rainfall in field ponds during the short rainy season, the research was focused on DI. In DI strategy, one irrigation was applied at the critical growth stage at or around flowering. This strategy was beneficial both in areas with relatively low rainfall and with relatively good rainfall and stablized yield at a relatively high level. In the more rainy locations, the yields shifted not only from moderate to high but also the average high yield increased. Nevertheless, the crops benefited more in low rainfall areas since DI highly reduced the proportion of low yield and increased the possibility to produce high and moderate yields. Improving water productivity is the greatest potential to increase food production in rainfed agriculture to feed the fast growing population. DI can help to mitigate the effect of dry spells during the growing season (where rainwater harvesting techniques in ponds or micro-dams can be used as a source). Careful planning of sowing dates for effective use of the available rainfall combined with DI and optimal application of inorganic fertilizers can be an important strategy for sustainable food production in drought-prone areas like Tigray as demonstrated in this study.nrpages: 186status: publishe

Sowing and irrigation strategies for improving rainfed tef (Eragrostistef (Zucc.) Trotter) production in the water scarce Tigray region,Ethiopia

Field experiments conducted under rainfed agriculture for three consecutive years (2008–2010) revealed that water stress at the late season is the most limiting factor for the productivity of tef (Eragrostis tef(Zucc.) Trotter) in Tigray, Ethiopia. Early sowing and one irrigation application late in the growing season,were evaluated with the AquaCrop model as management strategies to improve productivity. Simulations were run for three dominant soil types, under different soil fertility levels, and for four different locations in the region each with 19 years of historical climatic data. Advancing the sowing date, two to three weeks earlier than the commonly practiced by the farmers, resulted in stable yields and reduced the risks onyield failure by 72 to 100%. Moderate to high yields could only be achieved when the recommended fertilizer dose was applied. The yields became moderate but remained stable, by applying only 50% of the recommended dose, which is an affordable soil fertility management practice for the farmers. Considering the limited capacity of most farmers for irrigation, a very limited irrigation with only rainwater harvested during the growing cycle, was assessed as a strategy to further boost the productivity of tef in the region.Depending on the soil fertility level, one irrigation application of only 45 mm around flowering, increased the yield by 50–168% for late sowing and 16–75% for early sowing. In conclusions, this study revealed that optimal timing for sowing and one-time irrigation applied only during water sensitive growth stage are good strategies to improve the productivity of rainfed crops in a drought-prone areas.status: publishe

Demand for health care service and associated factors among patients in the community of Tsegedie District, Northern Ethiopia

Abstract Background Demand-side barriers are as important as supply factors in deterring patients from obtaining treatment. Developing countries including Ethiopia have been focusing on promoting health care utilization as an important policy to improve health outcomes and to meet international obligations to make health services broadly accessible. However, many policy and research initiatives focused on improving physical access rather than focusing on the pattern of health care service utilization related to demand side. Understanding of determinants of demand for health care services would enable to introduce and implement appropriate incentive schemes to encourage better utilization of health care services in the community of Tsegedie district, Northern Ethiopia. Methods A community based cross sectional study design was conducted from March1–30/2016 in Northern Ethiopia. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select 423 participants from 2189 patients of the one-month census. A pretested and standardized semi-structured interviewer administered questionnaire was used to collect the data. The data were entered using Epi-info version 7 and analysed by STATA version 11. Multinomial logistic regression model was used to identify the determinants of demand for health care service. Results A total of 423 (with a response rate of 98.3%) study participants were included in the study. The finding indicates that 72.5% (95%CI = 61.6, 81.1) of the participants demanded modern health care services. The multinomial logistic regression econometric model revealed that perceived severity of illness (β = 1.27; 95% CI = 0.74, 1.82), being educated household head (β = 0.079; 95% CI = 0.96, 1.74), quality of treatment (β = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.47, 1.5), distance to health facility β = 1.96; 95%CI = 0.11, 0.27), cost of treatment (β = − 1.99; 95% CI = 0.85, 3,13) were significantly and statistically associated with demand for health care service. Conclusion This study revealed that in Tsegedie district, majorities (72.5%) of the patients demanded modern health care service. Distance to health care facility, user-fees, educational status of household, quality of service, and severity of illness were found to be significantly associated with demand for health care service. Out of pocket, payments should be changed by prepayment schemes like community-based insurance than to depend on user fees and appropriate health information dissemination activities should strengthen to create awareness about modern care

Sowing strategies for barley (Hordeum vulgare l.) based on modelled yield response to water with Aquacrop

AquaCrop, the FAO water productivity model, is used as a tool to predict crop production under water limiting conditions. In the first step AquaCrop was calibrated and validated for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Data sets of field experiments at seven different locations in four countries (Ethiopia, Italy, Syria and Montana, USA) with different climates in different years and with five different cultivars were used for model calibration and validation. The goodness-of-fit between observed and simulated soil water content, green canopy cover, biomass and grain yield was assessed by means of the coefficient of determination (R 2), the Nasha-Sutcliff efficiency (E), the index of agreement (d) and the root mean square error (RMSE). The statistical parameters indicated an adequate accuracy of simulations (validation regression of yield: R 2 = 0.95, E = 0.94, d = 0.99, RMSE = 0.34). Subsequently, sowing strategies in the semi-arid environment of northern Ethiopia were evaluated with the validated model. Dry sowing had a probability of 47% germination failure attributable to false start of the rainy season. On the other hand, delay sowing at the start of the rainy season to eliminate germinating weeds should be kept as short as possible because grain yields strongly reduce in the season due to water stress when sowing is delayed on shallow soils. This research demonstrates the ability of AquaCrop to predict accurately crop performance with only a limited set of input variables, and the robustness of the model under various environmental and climatic conditions. © 2012 Cambridge University Press.Peer Reviewe