The rise and fall of spatial inequalities in France: A long-run perspective

This paper uses a unique database that provides value-added, employment, and population levels for the entire set of French departments for the years 1860, 1930, and 2000. These data cover three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. This allows us to study the evolution of spatial inequalities within France and to test the empirical relevance of economic geography predictions over the long run. The evidence confirms the existence of a bell-shaped evolution of the spatial concentration of manufacturing and services. In contrast, labor productivity has been converging across departments. Last, our study also confirms the presence of strong agglomeration economies during the full time-period. Market potential during the first sub-period (1860-1930), and higher education during the second (1930-2000), together with sectoral diversity, account for the spatial distribution of these gains.economic geography ; agglomeration economies ; human capital ; economic history

Characteristics of Non-Allophanic Andisols derived from Low Activity Clay Regoliths in Nilgiri Hills (Southern India)

19International audienceLow activity clay soils on old planation surfaces of the tropics are generally considered as stable end points of soil formation. It is therefore surprising to find Andosols on them. We characterised the properties of six profiles representative of these soils in the Western part of Nilgiri Hills (2000–2500 m above mean sea level), Southern India, where the present climatic conditions are cool (mean annual temperature 15°C) and humid (mean annual rainfall 2500 mm). Thick (50–80 cm) dark–reddish brown topsoil overlies strongly desilicated yellowish–red materials. This horizon has andic properties to a sufficient depth and the carbon content requirement of the melanic epipedon to place these soils in the Andisol order. Our data as well as the history of the Nilgiri Hills suggest that the formation of these non-allophanic Andisols result from the succession of two main steps. First, a ‘lateritic' weathering cycle led to the relative accumulation of secondary Al and Fe oxides. Later, the accumulation of organic matter favoured by a more recent climatic change induced complexation by organic acids of Al and Fe oxides, and the production of enough metal–humus complexes to give rise to andic properties. Such soils, in which secondary Al and Fe oxides, generally considered as indicators of an advanced weathering stage, are involved in a new cycle of soil formation, are original Andisols

The rise and fall of spatial inequalities in France: A long-run perspective

This paper uses a unique database that provides value-added, employment, and population levels for the entire set of French departments for the years 1860, 1930, and 2000. These data cover three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. This allows us to study the evolution of spatial inequalities within France and to test the empirical relevance of economic geography predictions over the long run. The evidence confirms the existence of a bell-shaped evolution of the spatial concentration of manufacturing and services. In contrast, labor productivity has been converging across departments. Last, our study also confirms the presence of strong agglomeration economies during the full time-period. Market potential during the first sub-period (1860-1930), and higher education during the second (1930-2000), together with sectoral diversity, account for the spatial distribution of these gains.Cet article exploite une base de données unique relative à la valeur ajoutée, l'emploi et la population de l'ensemble des départements français pour les années 1860, 1930 et 2000. Ces données concernent trois secteurs : l'agriculture, l'industrie et les services. On peut ainsi étudierl'évolution séculaire des disparités internes à l'espace économique français et tester la validité des prédictions de l'économie géographique. Si l'industrie et les services se sont concentrés entre 1860 et 1930, ils se sont dispersés durant la période 1930-2000, confirmant l'existence d'une courbe en cloche du développement spatial. En revanche, la productivité du travail n'a cessé de converger à l'échelle des départements, ce qui suggère une péréquation spatiale croissante des revenus primaires. Enfin, notre analyse confirme l'existence, à toutes les époques, de fortes économies d'agglomération. Le potentiel marchand durant la première sous-période et le niveau de capital humain durant la seconde expliquent la distribution spatiale de ces gains

Clinical, electroretinographic and histomorphometric evaluation of the retina in sheep with natural scrapie

Background: The retina is part of the diencephalon in a peripheral location and may be involved in prion diseases. Retinal function and structural changes were assessed in naturally scrapie-affected red face Manech ewes presenting the classical signs of the disease, and clinically healthy age-matched subjects for controls. Ophthalmic examination was done prior to electroretinography (ERG), which was carried out under conditions that allowed photopic and scotopic activities to be assessed. Histomorphometry of the inner and outer retinal layers was performed post-mortem, and retinas were also examined for evidence of abnormal prion protein (PrPSc) accumulation and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) upregulation as a marker of gliosis. Scrapie status was determined by examination of brain tissue Results: Ocular reflexes and ophthalmoscopy did not reveal any difference between scrapie affected and control animals. Although the light-and dark-adapted ERG responses of both rod-and cone-mediated functions had a similar waveform in scrapie-affected and control sheep, a significant reduction in the amplitude of the ERG a-and b-waves was observed in affected animals compared to controls. These functional alterations were correlated with a substantial loss of cells in the outer nuclear layer (ONL), lengthening and disorganization in photoreceptor segments, and substantial reduction in cellularity and thickness of the inner nuclear layer (INL). The degenerative changes in the INL and ONL were most marked in the central and paracentral areas of the scrapie retinas, and were accompanied in all scrapie retinas by PrPSc deposition in the ganglion cell and synaptic layers. GFAP immunoreactivity was mainly increased in the ganglion cell and inner plexiform layers. Conclusions: No appreciable fundoscopic changes were observed in the scrapie-affected ewes although reproducible changes in retinal function as measured by ERG were observed in these animals. The alterations in the receptoral and post-receptoral pathways corresponded to the degenerative lesions observed in the ONL and INL of the scrapie retinas. The retinal degeneration was associated with prion protein infectivity which presumably spread via the optic nerve

Typologie des formes d’humus forestières (sous climats tempérés)

National audienceLe présent chapitre actualise la typologie des formes d'humus forestières dans le cadre du Référentiel Pédologique 2008. Les horizons de référence O et A sont définis sur la base de caractères directement observables sur le terrain, avec une liste de qualificatifs permettant de décrire toutes les variantes possibles des formes d'humus forestières présentes en climat tempéré. Des clés d'identification sont fournies pour les formes d'humus aérées et hydromorphes, ainsi que des tableaux synoptiques

FGF2 Translationally Induced by Hypoxia Is Involved in Negative and Positive Feedback Loops with HIF-1α

BACKGROUND: Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a major angiogenic factor involved in angiogenesis and arteriogenesis, however the regulation of its expression during these processes is poorly documented. FGF2 mRNA contains an internal ribosome entry site (IRES), a translational regulator expected to allow mRNA expression during cellular stress. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In the present study, we have developed a skin ischemia model in transgenic mice expressing a reporter transgene under the control of the FGF2 IRES. The results reveal that FGF2 is induced at the protein level during ischemia, concomitant with HIF-1alpha induction and a decrease in FGF2 mRNA. In addition, the FGF2 IRES is strongly activated under these ischemic conditions associated with hypoxia, whereas cap-dependent translation is repressed by 4E-BP hypophosphorylation. We also show that up-regulation of FGF2 protein expression in response to hypoxia correlates with the increase of FGF2 IRES activity in vitro, in human retinoblasts 911. The use of siRNAs targeting HIF or FGF2 indicates that FGF2 and HIF-1alpha reciprocally regulate their expression/accumulation, by a negative feedback loop in early hypoxia, followed by a positive feedback loop in late hypoxia. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: FGF2 expression is up-regulated in vivo and in vitro in response to hypoxia. Strikingly, this up-regulation is not transcriptional. It seems to occur by an IRES-dependent mechanism, revealing new mechanistic aspects of the hypoxic response. In addition, our data show that FGF2 interacts with HIF-1alpha in a unique crosstalk, with distinct stages in early and late hypoxia. These data reveal the physiological importance of IRES-dependent translation during hypoxic stress and underline the complexity of the cellular response to hypoxia, suggesting a novel role of FGF2 in the regulation of HIF-1alpha during the induction of angiogenesis

Genetic, Phenotypic, and Interferon Biomarker Status in ADAR1-Related Neurological Disease

International audienceWe investigated the genetic, phenotypic, and interferon status of 46 patients from 37 families with neurological disease due to mutations in ADAR1. The clinicoradiological phenotype encompassed a spectrum of Aicardi–Goutières syndrome, isolated bilateral striatal necrosis, spastic paraparesis with normal neuroimaging, a progressive spastic dystonic motor disorder, and adult-onset psychological difficulties with intracranial calcification. Homozygous missense mutations were recorded in five families. We observed a p.Pro193Ala variant in the heterozygous state in 22 of 23 families with compound heterozygous mutations. We also ascertained 11 cases from nine families with a p.Gly1007Arg dominant-negative mutation, which occurred de novo in four patients, and was inherited in three families in association with marked phenotypic variability. In 50 of 52 samples from 34 patients, we identified a marked upregulation of type I interferon-stimulated gene transcripts in peripheral blood, with a median interferon score of 16.99 (interquartile range [IQR]: 10.64–25.71) compared with controls (median: 0.93, IQR: 0.57–1.30). Thus, mutations in ADAR1 are associated with a variety of clinically distinct neurological phenotypes presenting from early infancy to adulthood, inherited either as an autosomal recessive or dominant trait. Testing for an interferon signature in blood represents a useful biomarker in this context

«La relation de limitation et d’exception dans le français d’aujourd’hui : excepté, sauf et hormis comme pivots d’une relation algébrique »

L’analyse des emplois prépositionnels et des emplois conjonctifs d’ “excepté”, de “sauf” et d’ “hormis” permet d’envisager les trois prépositions/conjonctions comme le pivot d’un binôme, comme la plaque tournante d’une structure bipolaire. Placées au milieu du binôme, ces prépositions sont forcées par leur sémantisme originaire dûment métaphorisé de jouer le rôle de marqueurs d’inconséquence systématique entre l’élément se trouvant à leur gauche et celui qui se trouve à leur droite. L’opposition qui surgit entre les deux éléments n’est donc pas une incompatibilité naturelle, intrinsèque, mais extrinsèque, induite. Dans la plupart des cas (emplois limitatifs), cette opposition prend la forme d’un rapport entre une « classe » et le « membre (soustrait) de la classe », ou bien entre un « tout » et une « partie » ; dans d’autres (emplois exceptifs), cette opposition se manifeste au contraire comme une attaque de front portée par un « tout » à un autre « tout ». De plus, l’inconséquence induite mise en place par la préposition/conjonction paraît, en principe, tout à fait insurmontable. Dans l’assertion « les écureuils vivent partout, sauf en Australie » (que l’on peut expliciter par « Les écureuils vivent partout, sauf [qu’ils ne vivent pas] en Australie »), la préposition semble en effet capable d’impliquer le prédicat principal avec signe inverti, et de bâtir sur une telle implication une sorte de sous énoncé qui, à la rigueur, est totalement inconséquent avec celui qui le précède (si « les écureuils ne vivent pas en Australie », le fait qu’ils « vivent partout » est faux). Néanmoins, l’analyse montre qu’alors que certaines de ces oppositions peuvent enfin être dépassées, d’autres ne le peuvent pas. C’est, respectivement, le cas des relations limitatives et des relations exceptives. La relation limitative, impliquant le rapport « tout » - « partie », permet de résoudre le conflit dans les termes d’une somme algébrique entre deux sous énoncés pourvus de différent poids informatif et de signe contraire. Les valeurs numériques des termes de la somme étant déséquilibrées, le résultat est toujours autre que zéro. La relation exceptive, au contraire, qui n’implique pas le rapport « tout » - « partie », n’est pas capable de résoudre le conflit entre deux sous énoncés pourvus du même poids informatif et en même temps de signe contraire : les valeurs numériques des termes de la somme étant symétriques et égales, le résultat sera toujours équivalent à zéro