Observations and Modeling of the Mars Low‐Altitude Ionospheric Response to the 10 September 2017 X‐Class Solar Flare

Solar extreme ultraviolet and X‐ray photons are the main sources of ionization in the Martian ionosphere and can be enhanced significantly during a solar flare. On 10 September 2017, the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN orbiter observed an X8.2 solar flare, the largest it has encountered to date. Here we investigate the ionospheric response before, during, and after this event with the SuperThermal Electron Transport model. We find good agreement between modeled and measured photoelectron spectra. In addition, the high photoelectron fluxes during the flare provide adequate statistics to allow us to clearly and repeatedly identify the carbon Auger peak in the ionospheric photoelectron energy spectra at Mars for the first time. By applying photochemical equilibrium, O2+ and CO2+ densities are obtained and compared with Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN observations. The variations in ion densities during this event due to the solar irradiance enhancement and the neutral atmosphere expansion are discussed.Plain Language SummarySolar extreme ultraviolet and X‐ray photons are the main source of ionization in the Martian ionosphere, photoionizing the neutral particles and producing photoelectrons and ions. These short‐wavelength photon fluxes can be enhanced by a factor of a few to orders of magnitudes during a solar flare (the result of the rapid conversion of magnetic energy to kinetic energy in the solar corona). On 10 September 2017, the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN mission encountered the largest solar flare (X8.2) to date. The comprehensive measurements from Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN provide us with an opportunity to evaluate the ionospheric response to this flare event in detail with models. In particular, we investigate the photoelectron flux and ion density response to the flare with an electron transport model. The modeled and measured photoelectron fluxes are in a good agreement. Ion density enhancement at a fixed altitude is from tens of percent to 1500% due to a combination of intensified solar photon fluxes and the heated and then expanded neutral atmosphere during this flare event.Key PointsThe modeled and measured photoelectron spectra are in good agreement during an X8.2 solar flare eventThe carbon Auger peak is clearly and repeatedly identified in electron energy spectra of the Martian ionosphere for the first timeThe ion density enhancement due to the flare at a fixed altitude is from tens to 1,500%Peer Reviewedhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/145576/1/grl57692.pdfhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/145576/2/grl57692_am.pd

The paradigm of the area law and the structure of transversal and longitudinal lightfront degrees of freedom

It is shown that an algebraically defined holographic projection of a QFT onto the lightfront changes the local quantum properties in a very drastic way. The expected ubiquitous vacuum polarization characteristic of QFT is confined to the lightray (longitudinal) direction, whereas operators whose localization is transversely separated are completely free of vacuum correlations. This unexpected ''transverse return to QM'' combined with the rather universal nature of the strongly longitudinal correlated vacuum correlations (which turn out to be described by rather kinematical chiral theories) leads to a d-2 dimensional area structure of the d-1 dimensional lightfront theory. An additive transcription in terms of an appropriately defined entropy related to the vacuum restricted to the horizon is proposed and its model independent universality aspects which permit its interpretation as a quantum candidate for Bekenstein's area law are discussed. The transverse tensor product foliation structure of lightfront degrees of freedom is essential for the simplifying aspects of the algebraic lightcone holography. Key-words: Quantum field theory; Mathematical physics, Quantum gravityComment: 16 pages latex, identical to version published in JPA: Math. Gen. 35 (2002) 9165-918

Quantum cosmology of (loop) quantum gravity condensates : an example

Spatially homogeneous universes can be described in (loop) quantum gravity as condensates of elementary excitations of space. Their treatment is easiest in the second-quantized group field theory formalism, which allows the adaptation of techniques from the description of Bose–Einstein condensates in condensed matter physics. Dynamical equations for the states can be derived directly from the underlying quantum gravity dynamics. The analogue of the Gross–Pitaevskii equation defines an anisotropic quantum cosmology model, in which the condensate wavefunction becomes a quantum cosmology wavefunction on minisuperspace. To illustrate this general formalism, we give a mapping of the gauge-invariant geometric data for a tetrahedron to a minisuperspace of homogeneous anisotropic three-metrics. We then study an example for which we give the resulting quantum cosmology model in the general anisotropic case and derive the general analytical solution for isotropic universes. We discuss the interpretation of these solutions. We suggest that the WKB approximation used in previous studies, corresponding to semiclassical fundamental degrees of freedom of quantum geometry, should be replaced by a notion of semiclassicality that refers to large-scale observables instead

Small Platforms, High Return: The Need to Enhance Investment in Small Satellites for Focused Science, Career Development, and Improved Equity

In the next decade, there is an opportunity for very high return on investment of relatively small budgets by elevating the priority of smallsat funding in heliophysics. We've learned in the past decade that these missions perform exceptionally well by traditional metrics, e.g., papers/year/\$M (Spence et al. 2022 -- arXiv:2206.02968). It is also well established that there is a "leaky pipeline" resulting in too little diversity in leadership positions (see the National Academies Report at https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/increasing-diversity-in-the-leadership-of-competed-space-missions). Prioritizing smallsat funding would significantly increase the number of opportunities for new leaders to learn -- a crucial patch for the pipeline and an essential phase of career development. At present, however, there are far more proposers than the available funding can support, leading to selection ratios that can be as low as 6% -- in the bottom 0.5th percentile of selection ratios across the history of ROSES. Prioritizing SmallSat funding and substantially increasing that selection ratio are the fundamental recommendations being made by this white paper.Comment: White paper submitted to the Decadal Survey for Solar and Space Physics (Heliophysics) 2024-2033; 6 pages, 1 figur

Emergence of a low spin phase in group field theory condensates

Recent results have shown how quantum cosmology models can be derived from the effective dynamics of condensate states in group field theory (GFT), where 'cosmology is the hydrodynamics of quantum gravity': the classical Friedmann dynamics for homogeneous, isotropic universes, as well as loop quantum cosmology (LQC) corrections to general relativity have been shown to emerge from fundamental quantum gravity. We take one further step towards strengthening the link with LQC and show, in a class of GFT models for gravity coupled to a free massless scalar field and for generic initial conditions, that GFT condensates dynamically reach a low spin phase of many quanta of geometry, in which all but an exponentially small number of quanta are characterised by a single spin j 0 (i.e. by a constant volume per quantum). As the low spin regime is reached, GFT condensates expand to exponentially large volumes, and the dynamics of the total volume follows precisely the classical Friedmann equations. This behaviour follows from a single requirement on the couplings in the GFT model under study. We present one particular simple case in which the dominant spin is the lowest one: ${j}_{0}=0$ or, if this is excluded, ${j}_{0}=1/2$. The type of quantum state usually assumed in the derivation of LQC is hence derived from the quantum dynamics of GFT. These results confirm and extend recent results by Oriti, Sindoni and Wilson-Ewing in the same setting

Brane-World Gravity

The observable universe could be a 1+3-surface (the "brane") embedded in a 1+3+\textit{d}-dimensional spacetime (the "bulk"), with Standard Model particles and fields trapped on the brane while gravity is free to access the bulk. At least one of the \textit{d} extra spatial dimensions could be very large relative to the Planck scale, which lowers the fundamental gravity scale, possibly even down to the electroweak ($\sim$ TeV) level. This revolutionary picture arises in the framework of recent developments in M theory. The 1+10-dimensional M theory encompasses the known 1+9-dimensional superstring theories, and is widely considered to be a promising potential route to quantum gravity. At low energies, gravity is localized at the brane and general relativity is recovered, but at high energies gravity "leaks" into the bulk, behaving in a truly higher-dimensional way. This introduces significant changes to gravitational dynamics and perturbations, with interesting and potentially testable implications for high-energy astrophysics, black holes, and cosmology. Brane-world models offer a phenomenological way to test some of the novel predictions and corrections to general relativity that are implied by M theory. This review analyzes the geometry, dynamics and perturbations of simple brane-world models for cosmology and astrophysics, mainly focusing on warped 5-dimensional brane-worlds based on the Randall--Sundrum models. We also cover the simplest brane-world models in which 4-dimensional gravity on the brane is modified at \emph{low} energies -- the 5-dimensional Dvali--Gabadadze--Porrati models. Then we discuss co-dimension two branes in 6-dimensional models.Comment: A major update of Living Reviews in Relativity 7:7 (2004) "Brane-World Gravity", 119 pages, 28 figures, the update contains new material on RS perturbations, including full numerical solutions of gravitational waves and scalar perturbations, on DGP models, and also on 6D models. A published version in Living Reviews in Relativit

Does the early frog catch the worm? Disentangling potential drivers of a parasite age–intensity relationship in tadpoles

The manner in which parasite intensity and aggregation varies with host age can provide insights into parasite dynamics and help identify potential means of controlling infections in humans and wildlife. A significant challenge is to distinguish among competing mechanistic hypotheses for the relationship between age and parasite intensity or aggregation. Because different mechanisms can generate similar relationships, testing among competing hypotheses can be difficult, particularly in wildlife hosts, and often requires a combination of experimental and model fitting approaches. We used field data, experiments, and model fitting to distinguish among ten plausible drivers of a curvilinear age–intensity relationship and increasing aggregation with host age for echinostome trematode infections of green frogs. We found little support for most of these proposed drivers but did find that the parsimonious explanation for the observed age–intensity relationship was seasonal exposure to echinostomes. The parsimonious explanation for the aggregated distribution of parasites in this host population was heterogeneity in exposure. A predictive model incorporating seasonal exposure indicated that tadpoles hatching early or late in the breeding season should have lower trematode burdens at metamorphosis, particularly with simulated warmer climates. Application of this multi-pronged approach (field surveys, lab experiments, and modeling) to additional parasite–host systems could lead to discovery of general patterns in the drivers of parasite age–intensity and age–distribution relationships

No detection of methane on Mars from early ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter observations

The detection of methane on Mars has been interpreted as indicating that geochemical or biotic activities could persist on Mars today. A number of different measurements of methane show evidence of transient, locally elevated methane concentrations and seasonal variations in background methane concentrations. These measurements, however, are difficult to reconcile with our current understanding of the chemistry and physics of the Martian atmosphere, which-given methane's lifetime of several centuries-predicts an even, well mixed distribution of methane. Here we report highly sensitive measurements of the atmosphere of Mars in an attempt to detect methane, using the ACS and NOMAD instruments onboard the ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter from April to August 2018. We did not detect any methane over a range of latitudes in both hemispheres, obtaining an upper limit for methane of about 0.05 parts per billion by volume, which is 10 to 100 times lower than previously reported positive detections. We suggest that reconciliation between the present findings and the background methane concentrations found in the Gale crater would require an unknown process that can rapidly remove or sequester methane from the lower atmosphere before it spreads globally