An idiographic approach to the fluctuation of appraisals and coping during a trapshooting competition

Events occurring during competition can impact athletes differently and influence their cognitive states and emotional states. Therefore, appraisal and coping processes are individual and can be understood better using an idiographic approach. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) to describe the nature of the fluctuation of emotional states and coping processes during the competition and 2) to propose an idiographic and ecologically valid method of study of these processes through the use of verbal protocols and sequential analysis. One master world-class elite (58 years old and 28 years of competitive experience) and one master 4th-category regional level trapshooter (59 years old and 30 of experience) participated in this study. Participants completed an affect grid after each shot during two competitions of the national trapshooting championship. Each competition was composed of 6 sets of 25 shots. After each set, participants provided verbal reports using a delayed verbal protocol procedure. This procedure consisted of identifying critical moments within the competition, and reporting thoughts and feelings immediately before and after each critical moment. Verbal reports were transcribed verbatim and coded according to Lazarus’ cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. Units of information were submitted to event sequential analysis to determine the probability of occurrence of paired-events. The elite level athlete reported a stable pattern of pleasure and arousal levels, while the non-elite athlete reported greater fluctuation of emotional states. It was found great inter- and intra-individual variability depending on the context, but patterns of appraisal and coping were identified through sequential analysis

Fluctuation of cognitive-emotional states during competition:an idiographic account

The purpose of this paper is to describe athletes’ cognitive-emotional processes during competitions through an idiographic and ecologically valid study method based on verbal protocols and event sequential analyses. A world-class marksman and regional-level marksman filled in an affect grid after each shot during several competitions. Verbal reports were collected after each set by a delayed retrospective recall method and compared according to perceived performance periods. Event sequential analyses were conducted. The results showed distinct interpersonal patterns of affective states fluctuations and self-regulation strategies. Furthermore, intrapersonal patterns as a function of perceived performance were also identified. We suggest that the proposed methods are useful in studying athletes’ cognitive-emotional processes during ongoing competitions, as they ensure high ecological validity and provide in-depth information for more effective, individually-tailored interventions

Event-sequence analysis of appraisals and coping during trapshooting performance

This study describes appraisal and coping patterns of trapshooters during competition, via post-performance retrospective verbal reports. Probabilities that an event (e.g., missed target) is followed by another event (e.g., negative appraisal) were calculated and state transitional diagrams were drawn. Event-sequences during critical and non-critical performance periods were compared. Negative appraisals were most likely before and after missed targets and hits with the second shot. Positive appraisals were most likely before problem-focused coping and after emotion-focused coping. These findings support the process view of coping by illustrating that athletes cope with a variety of situations via a complex set of appraisals

Profile of high-performing college soccer teams: An exploratory multi-level analysis

Purpose: To determine the profile of high-performing college soccer teams through the use of exploratory hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) based on a socio-cognitive approach. Design and Measures: A correlational design was employed in this study. The sample consisted of 340 college soccer players of both genders (178 female and 162 male), representing 17 different teams (8 female and 9 male) ranked in the top-32 of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Numerous demographic and soccer-related variables represented level-1 in the HLM model. Group Environment Questionnaire and Team Assessment Diagnostic Measure were entered as level-2 variables, representing cohesion and team mental models, respectively. Perceived performance potential (PPP) served as the dependent variable. Objective performance scores were correlated with PPP, attesting a moderate to high-level of criterion related validity (r = .78). Results: The final model suggested that: (1) International athletes perceive their performance lower than others, (2) different field positions share different covariance coefficients with PPP, and (3) perception of social cohesion from a group, rather than individual, standpoint is positively associated with perceptions of team performance. Conclusions: High performing teams have clearly defined task-related and team-related goals. Accordingly, social rather than task related factors may represent a competitive edge, further energizing the interactions and performance of top-ranked teams. International athletes perceive team performance lower than locals, perhaps due to differences in preferred game-style and acculturation experiences. Players from different field positions (i.e., goalkeepers, defensive, and offensive players) relate differently to team performance in college soccer

Fluctuation of Cognitive-Emotional states during competition : an idiographic approach

The purpose of this paper is to describe athletes cognitive-emotional processes during competitions through an idiographic and ecologically valid study method based on verbal protocols and event sequential analyses. A world-class marksman and regional-level marksman filled in an affect grid after each shot during several competitions. Verbal reports were collected after each set by a delayed retrospective recall method and compared according to perceived performance periods. Event sequential analyses were conducted. The results showed distinct interpersonal patterns of affective states fluctuations and self-regulation strategies. Furthermore, intrapersonal patterns as a function of perceived performance were also identified. We suggest that the proposed methods are useful in studying athletes cognitive-emotional processes during ongoing competitions, as they ensure high ecological validity and provide in-depth information for more effective,individually-tailored interventions

Recall accuracy for pre and post competition emotional states in athletes

Th e current study assessed athletes’ recall accuracy for pre and post competition emotions and their ability to differentiate between the two emotional states. Emotional states of 52 athletes were measured either before (condition 1). after (condition 2), or both before and after (condition 3) competition, and then recalled after a 72-hour delay. The Incredibly Short Profile of Mood States (ISP), Positive- Negative Affect Scale (PNA), and an open question about self-thoughts were used as measurement tools. RM MANOVA procedures revealed that athletes accurately differentiate between their pre and post competition emotional experiences. The results also show that pre-competition emotional states are accurately recalled while the intensity of post-competition negative feelings is underestimated. Several explanations for these findings are offered. Correlations between actual and retrospective measures of emotions are somewhat lower, mainly for the ISP items, than previously reported ones. It seems that scales yield higher correlations than single items. In light of these results, it is recommended to apply recall techniques with caution until the nature and stability of underestimations of negative feelings are better understood. It is further suggested that future research will examine the effects of competition importance and outcome quality on recall accuracy

An Examination of the Challenges Experienced by Canadian Ice-Hockey Players in the National Hockey League

Semistructured interviews were used in this study to learn about the challenges experienced by four groups of National Hockey League (NHL) players (N=11): prospects (n=3), rookies (n=3), veterans (n=2), and retirees (n=3). The database is comprised of 757 meaning units grouped into 11 contextual challenges pertaining to scouting demands, training camp, increased athletic demands, team expectations, and earning team trust. The veterans spoke mostly of challenges including scouting demands, athletic demands, and team expectations. Retirees considered mostly challenges pertaining to team expectations, athletic demands, lifestyle, media demands, transactions, cross-cultural encounters, and playoffs. An expert panel ensured that the interview guide, data analysis, and the findings represented the participants’ experiences in the NHL. Recommendations for practitioners and researchers working with NHL players are proposed

El foco de atención emerge espontáneamente durante el ejercicio progresivo y máximo

The objective of this study was to test a non-linear focus-of-attention model, with the imposition and non-imposition of dissociative thinking during a progressive and maximum bicycle ergometer test. Twelve students who were familiar with experimental procedures performed a progressive and maximum bicycle ergometer test twice under two different conditions: first so as to encourage the emergence of intrinsic dynamics, without imposing any type of thinking and, second, imposing dissociative thinking (DT). During the test, through previously agreed signals, the participants reported on their type of thinking every 30 seconds (DT or AT - dissociative or associative thinking). The individual series were divided into 10 temporary intervals of increasing intensity and the percentage of DT and AT in each one of them was calculated. The median percentage of AT was significantly higher from the 6th interval of intensity onwards in the non-imposed DT test (NIDT) (χ2 (12, 9) = 39.75; p < .001) and from the 8th interval onwards in the imposed DT test (IDT) (χ2 (12, 9) = 70.65; p < .001). The percentage of PD was higher in the PDI test in 6 of the 10 intervals of intensity (p < .05). The results demonstrate the spontaneous emergence of PA during a progressive and maximum cycling exercise, confirming the nonlinear focus-of-attention model.El objetivo de este estudio fue testar un modelo no lineal del foco de atención imponiendo y sin imponer un pensamiento disociado durante un test cicloergométrico progresivo y máximo. Doce estudiantes previamente familiarizados con los procedimientos experimentales realizaron dos veces un test progresivo y máximo en cicloergómetro en dos condiciones diferentes: la primera, orientada a establecer su dinámica intrínseca, sin imponer ningún tipo de pensamiento, y la segunda imponiendo un pensamiento disociado (PD). Durante los test los participantes informaron cada 30s sobre su tipo de pensamiento (PD o PA -pensamiento asociado) a través de señales previamente convenidas. Las series individuales se dividieron en 10 intervalos temporales de intensidad creciente y se calcularon los porcentajes de PD y PA en cada una de ellas. Se encontraron porcentajes significativamente superiores de PA a partir del 6º intervalo de intensidad en el test con PD no impuesto (PDNI) (χ2 (12, 9) = 39.75; p < .001) y a partir del 8º intervalo en el test con PD impuesto (PDI) (χ2 (12, 9) = 70.65; p < .001). Los porcentajes de PD fueron superiores en el test PDI en 6 de los 10 intervalos de intensidad (p < .05). Los resultados demuestran la emergencia espontánea de PA durante el ejercicio progresivo y máximo confirmando el modelo no lineal del foco de atención.O objectivo deste estudo foi testar um modelo não linear do foco de atenção impondo e sem impor um pensamento dissociativo durante um teste cicloergométrico progressivo e máximo. Doze estudantes previamente familiarizados com os procedimentos experimentais realizaram duas vezes um teste progressivo e máximo num cicloergómetro em duas condições diferentes: a primeira, orientada para estabelecer a sua dinâmica intrínseca, sem impor nenhum tipo de pensamento, e a segunda impondo um pensamento dissociado (PD). Durante os testes os participantes informaram cada 30s sobre o seu tipo de pensamento (PD ou PA -pensamento associado) através de sinais previamente convencionados. As séries individuais dividiram-se em 10 intervalos temporais de intensidade crescente e foram calculadas as percentagens de PD e PA em cada uma delas. Verificaram-se percentagens significativamente superiores de PA a partir do 6º intervalo de intensidade no teste com PD não imposto (PDNI) (χ2 (12, 9) = 39.75; p < .001) e a partir do 8º intervalo no teste com PD imposto (PDI) (χ2 (12, 9) = 70.65; p < .001). As percentagens de PD foram superiores no teste de PDI em 6 dos 10 intervalos de intensidade (p < .05). Os resultados demonstram a emergência espontânea de PA durante o exercício progressivo e máximo, confirmando o modelo não linear do foco atencional

Metastable Pain-Attention Dynamics during Incremental Exhaustive Exercise

Background: Pain attracts attention on the bodily regions. Attentional allocation toward pain results from the neural communication across the brain-wide network “connectome” which consists of pain-attention related circuits. Connectome is intrinsically dynamic and spontaneously fluctuating on multiple time-scales. The present study delineates the pain-attention dynamics during incremental cycling performed until volitional exhaustion and investigates the potential presence of nested metastable dynamics. Method: Fifteen young and physically active adults completed a progressive incremental cycling test and reported their discomfort and pain on a body map every 15 s. Results: The analyses revealed that the number of body locations with perceived pain and discomfort increased throughout five temporal windows reaching an average of 4.26 ± 0.59 locations per participant. A total of 37 different locations were reported and marked as painful for all participants throughout the cycling task. Significant differences in entropy were observed between all temporal windows except the fourth and fifth windows. Transient dynamics of bodily locations with perceived discomfort and pain were spanned by three principal components. The metastable dynamics of the body pain locations groupings over time were discerned by three time scales: (1) the time scale of shifts (15 s); (2) the time scale of metastable configurations (100 s), and (3) the observational time scale (1000 s). Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that body locations perceived as painful increase throughout the incremental cycling task following a switching metastable and nested dynamics. These findings support the view that human brain is intrinsically organized into active, mutually interacting complex and nested functional networks, and that subjective experiences inherent in pain perception depict identical dynamical principles to the neural tissue in the brain