The Deep Western Boundary Current dynamics in North Atlantic and its impact on the mean meridional overturning circulation

Cette thèse s’intéresse au courant profond de bord ouest dans l’Atlantique Nord, le Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC). Ce courant transporte des eaux denses, formées dans la gyre subpolaire, vers l’équateur et constitue une des composantes majeures de la circulation méridienne Atlantique, l’AMOC (pour Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation). Cette circulation contribue au transport de chaleur vers les hautes latitudes et stabilise le climat actuel. L’AMOC calculée dans différents modèles de circulation générale de l’océan présente une diversité dans son intensité, sa structure spatiale et sa variabilité temporelle. De nombreux facteurs peuvent expliquer cette hétérogénéité de réponses, dont les incertitudes qui subsistent sur le lien entre la formation d’eau dense par convection dans la gyre subpolaire, qui contribue à connecter les branches supérieure et inférieure de l’AMOC, et l’intensité de l’AMOC aux moyennes latitudes. Ces incertitudes proviennent en grande partie d’une méconnaissance de la circulation profonde dans l’Atlantique Nord, car difficile à observer et souvent incorrecte dans les modèles d’océan de faible résolution spatiale.L’objectif de cette thèse est donc d’étudier la dynamique du DWBC et son influence sur l’AMOC, à l’aide de simulations numériques réalistes d’un modèle de circulation générale de l’océan (NEMO). Dans cette optique, trois configurations de résolution horizontale croissante ont été mises en place en utilisant l’outil de raffinement de grille AGRIF : une grille globale de référencer à 1/2◦ de résolution (configuration ORCA), à laquelle a été ajouté une première grille raffinée à 1/8◦ couvrant l’Atlantique nord (configuration ERNA) incluant elle-même une seconde grille à 1/32◦ centrée sur la gyre subpolaire (configuration FER). ERNA et FER sont deux configurations originales, par la prise en compte du modèle de glace de mer dans l’emboîtement des grilles, et par la résolution horizontale de FER dans la gyre subpolaire.Dans un premier temps, nous étudions l’influence de la résolution horizontale sur la circulation moyenne en Atlantique Nord avec un intérêt particulier pour l’AMOC en contrastant les simulations issues des configurations ORCA et ERNA. L’augmentation de la résolution se traduit par l’amélioration de la dynamique des courants de bord ouest, en surface et également en profondeur. En effet, le transport du DWBC s’intensifie de l’ordre de 8Sv dans la gyre subpolaire, ce qui est en partie lié à une meilleure représentation de l’écoulement des eaux denses en provenance des Mers Nordiques. En outre, alors que dans ORCA le DWBC s’écoule vers le sud principalement le long de la ride médio-Atlantique, dans ERNA la route le long du bord ouest est privilégiée avec une circulation secondaire à l’intérieur de l’inetrgyre, ce qui est en meilleur accord avec les observations. Le chemin suivi par le DWBC le long du talus continental permet une intensification de l’AMOC et de la localisation de son maximum vers 35 ̊N. Ce résultat tend à réduire l’influence de la convection aux hautes latitudes sur l’intensité de l4AMOC par l’intermédiaire de l’interaction des courants de surface et de fond.Nous nous sommes intéressés par la suite à la structure dynamique et thermohaline du DWBC, en lien avec la représentation de la méso-échelle, dans la mer du Labrador, en utilisant la configuration FER. Dans cette configuration qui résout explicitement les processus de méso-échelle dans la gyre subpolaire, la dérive en température et salinité est nettement moins importante que dans ERNA. De plus, la structure verticale du courant de bord, notamment sa barotropisation entre l’est et l’ouest sde la section AR7W dans la mer du Labrador, est en très bon accord avec les observations. A partir d’une équation simplifiée de la vorticité relative, nous avons cherché à identifier les processus principaux qui contrôlent la dynamique du DWBC. Il ressort de cette analyse que le stretching associé aux vitesses […]The present study tackles the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) dynamics in the North Atlantic basin as its impact on the AMOC. The DWBC advects dense water masses equatorward, produced in the subpolar gyre, and is one of the major component of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This circulation contributes to the northward heat transport to high latitudes and allows to stabilise climate. When computing the AMOC in different ocean general circulation models (OGCM), results cover a wide range of intensity, spatial shape and temporal variability. Such response diversity is due to several factors. One of them is the remaining uncertainty on the link between dense water formation due to convection in the subpolar gyre, which contributes to connect the AMOC upper and lower branches, and the AMOC intensity at mid-latitudes. Those uncertainties are largely due to the knowledge gap of the deep circulation in North Atlantic because its direct observation is difficult and incorrectly reproduced in ocean models with a low spatial resolution. The methodology used rely on realistic numerical simulations based on the NEMO ocean general circulation model. Three configurations with an increasing spatial resolution have been developped using the grid refinement tool AGRIF : a global grid at 1/2◦ resolution (ORCA configuration), within which a first refined grid at 1/8◦ covering the whole North Atlantic (ERNA configuration) in which a second grid at 1/32◦ over the subpolar gyre (FER configuration). Both ERNA and FER are advanced and original by two aspects; they include a Sea-Ice model within embedded grids and FER reaches a high horizontal resolution over the subpolar gyre. We study the spatial horizontal resolution impact on the mean circulation in the North Atlantic with a focus on the AMOC contrasting simulations obtained with ORCA and ERNA solutions. Increasing the resolution improves the western boundary current dynamics at surface and depth. Indeed, the DWBC transport is intensified by 8Sv in the subpolar gyre partly due to a better representation of overflows coming from Nordic Seas through the Denmark Strait. Furthermore in ORCA the DWBC flows to the south along the Mid-Atlantic ridge ; in ERNA the flow along western continental shelf is dominant while a secondary circulation within the subpolar gyre arises being in better agreement with observations. The path followed by the DWBC along the continental shelf allows an interaction between surface and deep currents which seems to result both in an AMOC intensification and a maxima located close to 35 ̊N. This result tends to limit the influence of the convection, occuring at high latitudes, on the AMOC intensity at mid latitudes, often raised, and shed light on a modulation process of the AMOC intensity through the surface and deep currents interaction. We then addressed the thermohaline and the dynamical structure of the DWBC, asssocia- ted with the mesoscale representation, within the Labrador Sea using the FER configuration. With this configuration, which solved explicitly mesoscale eddies in the subpolar gyre, tempera- ture and salinity drift are clearly reduced compare to ERNA. Furthermore the vertical DWBC structure, especially its barotropisation from the eatstern to western side of the AR7W section within the Labrador Sea, is in very good agrement with observations. Using a simplified equation for relative vorticity, we try to identify the main processes handling the DWBC dynamics. The analysis reveals that the stretching associated with vertical velocities above topography and exchanges between isopycnal layers within boundary current dominate the vorticity balance. We also identify two areas within the DWBC where diapynal flux occur : along the Labrador Current on the western side of the Labrador Sea and seaward of Cape Desolation where eddy activity is marked. These results are close to two previous studies based on conceptual model and […

La dynamique du courant profond de bord ouest dans l'Atlantique Nord et son influence sur la circulation méridienne moyenne

The present study tackles the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) dynamics in the North Atlantic basin as its impact on the AMOC. The DWBC advects dense water masses equatorward, produced in the subpolar gyre, and is one of the major component of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This circulation contributes to the northward heat transport to high latitudes and allows to stabilise climate. When computing the AMOC in different ocean general circulation models (OGCM), results cover a wide range of intensity, spatial shape and temporal variability. Such response diversity is due to several factors. One of them is the remaining uncertainty on the link between dense water formation due to convection in the subpolar gyre, which contributes to connect the AMOC upper and lower branches, and the AMOC intensity at mid-latitudes. Those uncertainties are largely due to the knowledge gap of the deep circulation in North Atlantic because its direct observation is difficult and incorrectly reproduced in ocean models with a low spatial resolution. The methodology used rely on realistic numerical simulations based on the NEMO ocean general circulation model. Three configurations with an increasing spatial resolution have been developped using the grid refinement tool AGRIF : a global grid at 1/2◦ resolution (ORCA configuration), within which a first refined grid at 1/8◦ covering the whole North Atlantic (ERNA configuration) in which a second grid at 1/32◦ over the subpolar gyre (FER configuration). Both ERNA and FER are advanced and original by two aspects; they include a Sea-Ice model within embedded grids and FER reaches a high horizontal resolution over the subpolar gyre. We study the spatial horizontal resolution impact on the mean circulation in the North Atlantic with a focus on the AMOC contrasting simulations obtained with ORCA and ERNA solutions. Increasing the resolution improves the western boundary current dynamics at surface and depth. Indeed, the DWBC transport is intensified by 8Sv in the subpolar gyre partly due to a better representation of overflows coming from Nordic Seas through the Denmark Strait. Furthermore in ORCA the DWBC flows to the south along the Mid-Atlantic ridge ; in ERNA the flow along western continental shelf is dominant while a secondary circulation within the subpolar gyre arises being in better agreement with observations. The path followed by the DWBC along the continental shelf allows an interaction between surface and deep currents which seems to result both in an AMOC intensification and a maxima located close to 35 ̊N. This result tends to limit the influence of the convection, occuring at high latitudes, on the AMOC intensity at mid latitudes, often raised, and shed light on a modulation process of the AMOC intensity through the surface and deep currents interaction. We then addressed the thermohaline and the dynamical structure of the DWBC, asssocia- ted with the mesoscale representation, within the Labrador Sea using the FER configuration. With this configuration, which solved explicitly mesoscale eddies in the subpolar gyre, tempera- ture and salinity drift are clearly reduced compare to ERNA. Furthermore the vertical DWBC structure, especially its barotropisation from the eatstern to western side of the AR7W section within the Labrador Sea, is in very good agrement with observations. Using a simplified equation for relative vorticity, we try to identify the main processes handling the DWBC dynamics. The analysis reveals that the stretching associated with vertical velocities above topography and exchanges between isopycnal layers within boundary current dominate the vorticity balance. We also identify two areas within the DWBC where diapynal flux occur : along the Labrador Current on the western side of the Labrador Sea and seaward of Cape Desolation where eddy activity is marked. These results are close to two previous studies based on conceptual model and […]Cette thèse s’intéresse au courant profond de bord ouest dans l’Atlantique Nord, le Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC). Ce courant transporte des eaux denses, formées dans la gyre subpolaire, vers l’équateur et constitue une des composantes majeures de la circulation méridienne Atlantique, l’AMOC (pour Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation). Cette circulation contribue au transport de chaleur vers les hautes latitudes et stabilise le climat actuel. L’AMOC calculée dans différents modèles de circulation générale de l’océan présente une diversité dans son intensité, sa structure spatiale et sa variabilité temporelle. De nombreux facteurs peuvent expliquer cette hétérogénéité de réponses, dont les incertitudes qui subsistent sur le lien entre la formation d’eau dense par convection dans la gyre subpolaire, qui contribue à connecter les branches supérieure et inférieure de l’AMOC, et l’intensité de l’AMOC aux moyennes latitudes. Ces incertitudes proviennent en grande partie d’une méconnaissance de la circulation profonde dans l’Atlantique Nord, car difficile à observer et souvent incorrecte dans les modèles d’océan de faible résolution spatiale.L’objectif de cette thèse est donc d’étudier la dynamique du DWBC et son influence sur l’AMOC, à l’aide de simulations numériques réalistes d’un modèle de circulation générale de l’océan (NEMO). Dans cette optique, trois configurations de résolution horizontale croissante ont été mises en place en utilisant l’outil de raffinement de grille AGRIF : une grille globale de référencer à 1/2◦ de résolution (configuration ORCA), à laquelle a été ajouté une première grille raffinée à 1/8◦ couvrant l’Atlantique nord (configuration ERNA) incluant elle-même une seconde grille à 1/32◦ centrée sur la gyre subpolaire (configuration FER). ERNA et FER sont deux configurations originales, par la prise en compte du modèle de glace de mer dans l’emboîtement des grilles, et par la résolution horizontale de FER dans la gyre subpolaire.Dans un premier temps, nous étudions l’influence de la résolution horizontale sur la circulation moyenne en Atlantique Nord avec un intérêt particulier pour l’AMOC en contrastant les simulations issues des configurations ORCA et ERNA. L’augmentation de la résolution se traduit par l’amélioration de la dynamique des courants de bord ouest, en surface et également en profondeur. En effet, le transport du DWBC s’intensifie de l’ordre de 8Sv dans la gyre subpolaire, ce qui est en partie lié à une meilleure représentation de l’écoulement des eaux denses en provenance des Mers Nordiques. En outre, alors que dans ORCA le DWBC s’écoule vers le sud principalement le long de la ride médio-Atlantique, dans ERNA la route le long du bord ouest est privilégiée avec une circulation secondaire à l’intérieur de l’inetrgyre, ce qui est en meilleur accord avec les observations. Le chemin suivi par le DWBC le long du talus continental permet une intensification de l’AMOC et de la localisation de son maximum vers 35 ̊N. Ce résultat tend à réduire l’influence de la convection aux hautes latitudes sur l’intensité de l4AMOC par l’intermédiaire de l’interaction des courants de surface et de fond.Nous nous sommes intéressés par la suite à la structure dynamique et thermohaline du DWBC, en lien avec la représentation de la méso-échelle, dans la mer du Labrador, en utilisant la configuration FER. Dans cette configuration qui résout explicitement les processus de méso-échelle dans la gyre subpolaire, la dérive en température et salinité est nettement moins importante que dans ERNA. De plus, la structure verticale du courant de bord, notamment sa barotropisation entre l’est et l’ouest sde la section AR7W dans la mer du Labrador, est en très bon accord avec les observations. A partir d’une équation simplifiée de la vorticité relative, nous avons cherché à identifier les processus principaux qui contrôlent la dynamique du DWBC. Il ressort de cette analyse que le stretching associé aux vitesses […

Water retention behaviour of compacted bentonites: experimental observations and constitutive model

peer reviewedBentonite-based materials are studied as potential barriers for the geological disposal of radioactive waste. In this context, the hydro-mechanical behaviour of the engineered barrier is first characterized by free swelling conditions followed by constant volume conditions. This paper presents an experimental study conducted in order to characterize the water retention behaviour of a compacted MX-80 bentonite/sand mixture. Then, based on observations of the material double structure and the water retention mechanisms in compacted bentonites, a new water retention model is proposed. The model considers adsorbed water in the microstructure and capillary water in the aggregate-porosity. The model is calibrated and validated against the experimental data. It is used for better understanding competing effects between volume change and water uptake observed during hydration under free swelling conditions

Eddy-driven heterogeneity in sea ice during the ice-growth season

Mesoscale eddies, generated by lateral gradients in salinity and temperature in the Arctic marginal ice zone (MIZ), are known to modulate the melting of sea ice in this region. Yet, it remains unclear if eddies also modify sea ice growth during the freezing season. Here, we use a set of idealized simulations to explore the sea ice growth above an eddying ocean. In the presence of eddies, mixing of the surface temperature and salinity fields induce heterogeneity in the heat and salt fluxes at the ice-ocean interface, ultimately imprinting heterogeneity on the sea ice thickness. A stronger eddy field imprints more heterogeneity in the sea ice thickness. More heterogeneity in the sea ice pack would likely impact the current and future evolution of the sea ice conditions in the Arctic, where a rapid transition towards an open-ocean regime is ongoing

Response of the North Atlantic Ocean carbon sink to climate change : role of submesoscale processes

International audienceIn the North Atlantic, one of the largest oceanic carbon sink, both the biological pump (through primary production) and the physical pump (through subduction/obduction processes) are likely to be affected by climate change : earth system models predict a decline of primary production and changes in water mass formation. However, these models do not resolve submesoscale processes which have been shown to significantly modify both primary production and subduction at the scale of the basin. In order to examine how our current predictions of these changes are biased due to the absence of submesoscale processes, we carry a model study in which an idealized configuration of the North Atlantic ocean is run for several decades with 3 horizontal resolutions : 100km, 12km and 4km. Two scenarios are examined : a preindustrial scenario, with a seasonally repeating atmospheric forcing, and a climate change scenario where a constant temperature trend is added to the previous forcing. Comparing the results for the different horizontal resolution, we investigate the contribution of submesoscale processes to 1) the predicted decline of primary production, 2) the physical carbon fluxes in preindustrial conditions and 3) in climate change conditions

Response of Total and Eddy Kinetic Energy to the recent spin up of the Beaufort Gyre

The Beaufort Gyre in the Arctic Ocean has spun up over the past two decades in response to changes of the wind forcing and sea ice conditions, accumulating a significant amount of freshwater. Here a simulation performed with a high-resolution, eddy resolving model is analyzed in order to provide a detailed description of the total and eddy kinetic energy, and their response to this spin up of the gyre. On average, and in contrast to the typical open ocean conditions, the levels of mean and eddy kinetic energy are of the same order of magnitude, and the eddy kinetic energy is only intensified along the boundary and in the subsurface. In response to the strong anomalous atmospheric conditions in 2007, the gyre spins up and the mean kinetic energy almost doubles, while the eddy kinetic energy does not increase significantly for a long time period. This is because the isopycnals are able to flatten and the gyre expands outwards, reducing the potential for baroclinic instability. These results have implications for understanding the mechanisms at play for equilibrating the Beaufort Gyre and the variability and future changes of the Arctic freshwater system

Dynamical contribution to sea surface salinity variations in the eastern Gulf of Guinea based on numerical modelling

International audienceIn this study, we analyse the seasonal variability of the sea surface salinity (SSS) for two coastal regions of the Gulf of Guinea from 1995 to 2006 using a high resolution model (1/12°) embedded in a Tropical Atlantic (1/4°) model. Compared with observations and climatologies, our model demonstrates a good capability to reproduce the seasonal and spatial variations of the SSS and mixed layer depth. Sensitivity experiments are carried out to assess the respective impacts of precipitations and river discharge on the spatial structure and seasonal variations of the SSS in the eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea. In the Bight of Biafra, both precipitations and river runoffs are necessary to observe permanent low SSS values but the river discharge has the strongest impact on the seasonal variations of the SSS. South of the equator, the Congo river discharge alone is sufficient to explain most of the SSS structure and its seasonal variability. However, mixed layer budgets for salinity reveal the necessity to take into account the horizontal and vertical dynamics to explain the seasonal evolution of the salinity in the mixed layer. Indeed evaporation, precipitations and runoffs represent a relatively small contribution to the budgets locally at intraseasonal to seasonal time scales. Horizontal advection always contribute to spread the low salinity coastal waters offshore and thus decrease the salinity in the eastern Gulf of Guinea. For the Bight of Biafra and the Congo plume region, the strong seasonal increase of the SSS observed from May/June to August/September, when the trade winds intensify, results from a decreasing offshore spread of freshwater associated with an intensification of the salt input from the subsurface. In the Congo plume region, the subsurface salt comes mainly from advection due to a strong upwelling but for the Bight of Biafra, entrainment and vertical mixing also play a role. The seasonal evolution of horizontal advection in the Bight of Biafra is mainly driven by eddy correlations between salinity and velocities, but it is not the case in the Congo plume

An ice‐ocean model study of the mid‐2000s regime change in the Barents Sea

Over the satellite record, the Barents Sea winter maximum in sea ice extent has declined and was increasingly limited to areas north of the Polar Front after 2005 by warming Atlantic Water (AW) and Barents Sea Water (BSW). Sea ice extent here continues to garner interest, not least because it is associated with extreme winter weather in Europe and Asia. Previous model studies suggest there is a possibility that natural variability will cause southward re-expansion of the lost sea ice cover but reducing uncertainties requires a better understanding of the processes driving BSW variability. To address questions about BSW variability, we used a high-resolution model validated with observations over 1985-2014 to calculate the watermass transport, heat and freshwater budgets within the central Barents Sea, south of the Polar Front. The model shows BSW volume minima events in years centering at 1990 and 2004, meaning a reduction in the Barents Sea’s volume reservoir (also termed “memory”) of water that is consistent with historical BSW properties. Both events were preceded by extensive winter sea ice and substantial summer net sea ice melt. The event in 2004 was more extreme and led to warming AW occupying a greater volume in the Barents Sea after 2005. The reduced “memory” of BSW volume could impede a return to the more extensive winter sea ice regime and make further reduction in winter sea ice possible. Key Points We identify events of minimum dense water volume in the Barents Sea, with the 2002-2005 event being unique with large sea ice import During this event, a freshwater anomaly from sea ice melt enhanced the salinity gradient, reducing dense water formation and export After the event in 2006-2014, the proportion of dense water present in the southern Barents Sea remained smaller than during 1985-2002 Plain Language Summary Winter sea ice in the Barents Sea, in the eastern Arctic Ocean, has been in decline, particularly since 2000. The sea ice extent in this region is associated with atmospheric weather conditions during winter in Europe and Asia. An important factor in understanding the sea ice retreat is understanding the variability in Barents Sea temperature and salinity. Using a high-resolution simulation, the source of variability in Barents Sea Water properties has been quantified. This shows two events, 1990 and 2004, when Barents Sea Water volume reduced, giving less “memory” of previous conditions. The event in 2004 was larger and followed a large net sea ice melt. The volume of Barents Sea Water present in the Barents Sea did not fully recover after 2005. This could make it more difficult for winter sea ice to return to the region

The changing role of the master plan

Sodobno mesto je kompleksen organizem, izražen kot navidezni "kaos", v katerem se skrivajo mehanizmi dinamičnih aktivnosti, fleksibilnosti ter raznolikosti. Procese preoblikovanja želimo pogosto na silo vkalupiti v okvire tradicionalnih urbanističnih vzorcev ter jih obladati z elementi "klasično-hierarhičnega" reda. Vendar so ti instrumenti delovanja in odločanja nezmožni intepretirati sodobno prostorsko kompleksnost in na njo pozitivno vplivati. Z večanjem selektivnega poznavanja obstoječe strukture se bo hkrati vedno bolj osvobajala kreativnost, ki se bo izražala v novem načinu oblikovanja, urejanja urbanosti, v smislu najdene "disperzne harmonije med človekom in naravo". Z novim mestnim načrtom želimo preseči današnje mehanicistične in statične oblike določanja rabe prostora ter jih nadomestiti z bolj fleksibilnimi in inovativnimi oblikami usklajevanja javnih in zasebnih interesov.The contemporary city is a complex organism presenting itself as virtual "chaos", hiding mechanisms of dynamic activities, flexibility and variation. Processes of redesign are often forcefully modeled into the framework of traditional urban patterns and controlled with elements of "classical-hierar- hic" order. However these instruments of cooperation and decision making are incapable of interpreting modern spatial complexities and having positive effect. By increasing the selective knowledge of existing structures, simultaneously creativity will be released, expressed as new design, managing urbanity in the sense of found "disperse harmony between man and nature". With the new town plan we wish to overcome contemporary mechanistic and static design in determining land use and replace it with more flexibile and inovative methods for negotiating public and private interests

Mixed Layer formation and restratification in presence of mesoscale and submesoscale turbulence

Recent realistic high resolution modeling studies show a net increase of submesoscale activity in fall and winter when the mixed layer depth is at its maximum. This submesoscale activity increase is associated with a reduced deepening of the mixed layer. Both phenomena can be related to the development of mixed layer instabilities, which convert available potential energy into submesoscale eddy kinetic energy and contribute to a fast restratification by slumping the horizontal density gradient in the mixed layer. In the present work, the mixed layer formation and restratification was studied by uniformly cooling a fully turbulent zonal jet in a periodic channel at different resolutions, from eddy resolving (10 km) to submesoscale permitting (2 km). The effect of the submesoscale activity, highlighted by these different horizontal resolutions, was quantified in terms of mixed layer depth, restratification rate and buoyancy fluxes. Contrary to many idealized studies focusing on the restratification phase only, this study addresses a continuous event of mixed layer formation followed by its complete restratification. The robustness of the present results was established by ensemble simulations. The results show that, at higher resolution, when submesoscale starts to be resolved, the mixed layer formed during the surface cooling is significantly shallower and the total restratification almost three times faster. Such differences between coarse and fine resolution models are consistent with the submesoscale upward buoyancy flux, which balances the convection during the formation phase and accelerates the restratification once the surface cooling is stopped. This submesoscale buoyancy flux is active even below the mixed layer. Our simulations show that mesoscale dynamics also cause restratification, but on longer time scales. Finally, the spatial distribution of the mixed layer depth is highly heterogeneous in the presence of submesoscale activity, prompting the question of whether it is possible to parameterize submesoscale effects and their effects on the marine biology as a function of a spatially-averaged mixed layer depth