Knowledge of learning disabilities: the relationship with choice, duty of care and non-aversive approaches

The present study examines the relationship between the knowledge of the diagnostic criteria for a learning disability (based on DSM IV criteria), care practices and experience in health care and social care staff. Responses to a questionnaire were analysed in terms of participants emphasis on: recognizing duty of care; enabling choice; non-aversive and aversive strategies. Results indicated that the knowledge of the criteria for a learning disability was limited, with only I6% of the sample correctly identifying all three criteria. There were no significant differences between the two groups in relation to experience or level of knowledge. No clear cut differences were found between the groups in relation to tendency to emphasize a particular management approach, with the strategies adopted appearing to be influenced by vignettes used in this study. Participants tended to give responses that identified both a recognition of their duty of care to clients and the need to enable choice. Limitations of this study are discussed

Characterization of the LM5 pectic galactan epitope with synthetic analogues of β-1,4-d-galactotetraose

Plant cell wall glycans are important polymers that are crucial to plant development and serve as an important source of sustainable biomass. The study of polysaccharides in the plant cell wall relies heavily on monoclonal antibodies for localization and visualization of glycans, using e.g. Immunofluorescent microscopy. Here, we describe the detailed epitope mapping of the mab LM5 that is shown to bind to a minimum of three sugar residues at the non-reducing end of linear beta-1,4-linked galactan. The study uses de novo synthetic analogs of galactans combined with carbohydrate microarray and competitive inhibition ELISA for analysis of antibody-carbohydrate interactions

Report on the Current Inventory of the Toolbox for Plant Cell Wall Analysis: Proteinaceous and Small Molecular Probes

Plant cell walls are highly complex structures composed of diverse classes of polysaccharides, proteoglycans, and polyphenolics, which have numerous roles throughout the life of a plant. Significant research efforts aim to understand the biology of this cellular organelle and to facilitate cell-wall-based industrial applications. To accomplish this, researchers need to be provided with a variety of sensitive and specific detection methods for separate cell wall components, and their various molecular characteristics in vitro as well as in situ. Cell wall component-directed molecular detection probes (in short: cell wall probes, CWPs) are an essential asset to the plant glycobiology toolbox. To date, a relatively large set of CWPs has been produced—mainly consisting of monoclonal antibodies, carbohydrate-binding modules, synthetic antibodies produced by phage display, and small molecular probes. In this review, we summarize the state-of-the-art knowledge about these CWPs; their classification and their advantages and disadvantages in different applications. In particular, we elaborate on the recent advances in non-conventional approaches to the generation of novel CWPs, and identify the remaining gaps in terms of target recognition. This report also highlights the addition of new “compartments” to the probing toolbox, which is filled with novel chemical biology tools, such as metabolic labeling reagents and oligosaccharide conjugates. In the end, we also forecast future developments in this dynamic field

A diverse member of the fungal Avr4 effector family interacts with de-esterified pectin in plant cell walls to disrupt their integrity.

Effectors are small, secreted proteins that promote pathogen virulence. Although key to microbial infections, unlocking the intrinsic function of effectors remains a challenge. We have previously shown that members of the fungal Avr4 effector family use a carbohydrate-binding module of family 14 (CBM14) to bind chitin in fungal cell walls and protect them from host chitinases during infection. Here, we show that gene duplication in the Avr4 family produced an Avr4-2 paralog with a previously unknown effector function. Specifically, we functionally characterize PfAvr4-2, a paralog of PfAvr4 in the tomato pathogen Pseudocercospora fuligena, and show that although it contains a CBM14 domain, it does not bind chitin or protect fungi against chitinases. Instead, PfAvr4-2 interacts with highly de-esterified pectin in the plant's middle lamellae or primary cell walls and interferes with Ca2+-mediated cross-linking at cell-cell junction zones, thus loosening the plant cell wall structure and synergizing the activity of pathogen secreted endo-polygalacturonases

A diverse member of the fungal Avr4 effector family interacts with de-esterified pectin in plant cell walls to disrupt their integrity.

Effectors are small, secreted proteins that promote pathogen virulence. Although key to microbial infections, unlocking the intrinsic function of effectors remains a challenge. We have previously shown that members of the fungal Avr4 effector family use a carbohydrate-binding module of family 14 (CBM14) to bind chitin in fungal cell walls and protect them from host chitinases during infection. Here, we show that gene duplication in the Avr4 family produced an Avr4-2 paralog with a previously unknown effector function. Specifically, we functionally characterize PfAvr4-2, a paralog of PfAvr4 in the tomato pathogen Pseudocercospora fuligena, and show that although it contains a CBM14 domain, it does not bind chitin or protect fungi against chitinases. Instead, PfAvr4-2 interacts with highly de-esterified pectin in the plant's middle lamellae or primary cell walls and interferes with Ca2+-mediated cross-linking at cell-cell junction zones, thus loosening the plant cell wall structure and synergizing the activity of pathogen secreted endo-polygalacturonases

A diverse member of the fungal Avr4 effector family interacts with de-esterified pectin in plant cell walls to disrupt their integrity

Effectors are small, secreted proteins that promote pathogen virulence. Although key to microbial infections, unlocking the intrinsic function of effectors remains a challenge. We have previously shown that members of the fungal Avr4 effector family use a carbohydrate-binding module of family 14 (CBM14) to bind chitin in fungal cell walls and protect them from host chitinases during infection. Here, we show that gene duplication in the Avr4 family produced an Avr4-2 paralog with a previously unknown effector function. Specifically, we functionally characterize PfAvr4-2, a paralog of PfAvr4 in the tomato pathogen Pseudocercospora fuligena, and show that although it contains a CBM14 domain, it does not bind chitin or protect fungi against chitinases. Instead, PfAvr4-2 interacts with highly de-esterified pectin in the plant's middle lamellae or primary cell walls and interferes with Ca2+-mediated cross-linking at cell-cell junction zones, thus loosening the plant cell wall structure and synergizing the activity of pathogen secreted endo-polygalacturonases

Enzyme activities at different stages of plant biomass decomposition in three species of fungusgrowing termites

Fungus-growing termites rely on mutualistic fungi of the genus Termitomyces and gut microbes for plant biomass degradation. Due to a certain degree of symbiont complementarity, this tripartite symbiosis has evolved as a complex bioreactor, enabling decomposition of nearly any plant polymer, likely contributing to the success of the termites as one of the main plant decomposers in the Old World. In this study, we evaluated which plant polymers are decomposed and which enzymes are active during the decomposition process in two major genera of fungus-growing termites. We found a diversity of active enzymes at different stages of decomposition and a consistent decrease in plant components during the decomposition process. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that termites transport enzymes from the older mature parts of the fungus comb through young worker guts to freshly inoculated plant substrate. However, preliminary fungal RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses suggest that this likely transport is supplemented with enzymes produced in situ. Our findings support that the maintenance of an external fungus comb, inoculated with an optimal mixture of plant material, fungal spores, and enzymes, is likely the key to the extraordinarily efficient plant decomposition in fungus-growing termites