Towards ending the animal cognition war: a three-dimensional model of causal cognition

Debates in animal cognition are frequently polarized between the romantic view that some species have human-like causal understanding and the killjoy view that human causal reasoning is unique. These apparently endless debates are often characterized by conceptual confusions and accusations of straw-men positions. What is needed is an account of causal understanding that enables researchers to investigate both similarities and differences in cognitive abilities in an incremental evolutionary framework. Here we outline the ways in which a three-dimensional model of causal understanding fulfills these criteria. We describe how this approach clarifies what is at stake, illuminates recent experiments on both physical and social cognition, and plots a path for productive future research that avoids the romantic/killjoy dichotomy.Introduction Dissecting disagreement - Principles of interpretation - A big misunderstanding and the conceptual question The conceptual space of causal cognition - Causal information -- Difference‑making accounts of causality -- Geometrical–mechanical accounts - Difference‑making and geometrical–mechanical aspects of human concept of causation - Understanding causality - Parameters of causal cognition -- a) Sources of causal information -- b) Integration -- c) Explicitness From causal cognition to causal understanding - A three‑dimensional model of causal cognition - The evolution of causal cognition and the nature of causal understanding - The metrics of the model and future research Conclusio

Exercise dependence among marathon runners in relation to their demographic and training status

Introduction and purpose. Taking into account that endurance athletes might be at an increased risk for exercise dependence there is a need for monitoring the prevalence and correlates of this phenomenon in them. The aim of the study was assessing the prevalence of exercise addiction among marathon runners and identify its socio-demographic and training correlates. Material and method. A total of 132 runners ranging in age from 18–69 years old took part in the study. To assess the exercise dependence a polish version of the Exercise Dependence Scale-21 was used. Results. The results suggest that being at risk for exercise dependence concerns 12% of runners and – except of withdrawal factor - is not related to sex but is related to age. No significant differences were found between training volume groups and exercise dependence. Conclusions. More than one on ten marathoners seem to be addicted to running suggesting the need to increase knowledge on this phenomenon in this community

Genetic diversity of symbiodinium in selected corals in the Western Indian Ocean.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2007.Coastal communities along the east African coastline rely on coral reefs and their associated resources for food security and income. However, increases in the frequency and severity of episodes of coral bleaching have resulted in mass coral moralities in many locations around the world including the western Indian Ocean (WIO). Reef corals obligately host dinoflagellate algal symbionts of the genus Symbiodinium. Coral bleaching is caused by the loss of these symbionts from the host, resulting from a variety of stresses, the major ones being increased seawater temperature and irradiance. The Symbiodinum genus is diverse and the distribution of symbionts is influenced by the host biology, external light environment and geographic location. Ten distinct clades of Symbiodinium have been identified. Although the Caribbean and Great Barrier Reef have been studied intensively with respect to Symbiodinium diversity in many locations in the WIO Symbiodinium diversity is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine diversity, distribution and prevalence of Symbiodinium types in corals along the east African coastline. The Symbiodinium ssrDNA region was analysed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in order to assess the cladal diversity of Symbiodinium. The results showed all samples analysed to belong to clade C. To gain more insight into Symbiodinium genetic diversity, the ITS region was employed to assess Symbiodinium diversity at the subcladal level. Twenty ITS types were identified. The most prevalent type was found to be subclade C1. No phylogeographic structuring was found amongst the symbiont types, however, specificity of symbiont types to coral hosts was demonstrated indicating potential susceptibility to perturbations such as increased seawater temperature

Reduction of selected betacyanins

Betacyanins are conjugates of betalamic acid and glycosylated cyclo-DOPA which bring about the creation of a specific chromophoric system, the 1,7-diazaheptamethin chain. Betanin, a betacyanin pigment from red beet (Beta vulgaris L.), as well as its decarboxylated derivatives were subjected to reduction with the use of NaBH4. The pigment structures contain a vinyl linker which is postulated to be protonated during reaction with NaBH4. In this study, 17-decarboxybetanin and 2,17-bidecarboxy-betanin were obtained from betanin, which had been previously isolated from red beet root (Beta vulgaris L.). Purified pigments were tested in the presence of the reduction reagent while looking for the products of the reaction identified by LC-MS

Mass spectrometric detection of new betalains in Mammillaria flowers

Betacyanins are natural, red-violet betalain pigments which can be found in plenty of plants of the Cactaceae family. The Mammillaria is the widest genus of the Cactaceae family of which fruit was examined for betacyanins contents. As a result of the investigation, a new pigment structure, mammillarinin, was identified. Heretofore, no betacyanins of Mammillaria coronata flowers has been extensively studied. In this report, the results of betacyanin analysis by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS in the flower extract are presented

Flora and Community Assembly of Beaver County: Vascular Plants of the Western Great Plains and Phylogenetic Patterns Along a Hydrological Gradient

Beaver County has the lowest plant collections per area of any county in western Oklahoma, and is located in the understudied shortgrass/mixed-grass prairies of the western Great Plains. The region has a history of high disturbance with a low proportion of protected areas and high risk for climate change induced drought. Through field work and herbarium specimen study, I documented a list of the vascular plants of the county, recording 497 vascular plant species. To facilitate the collection effort of a county-level floristic study, I developed methods for identifying knowledge gaps in the known flora. Using soil, geological, and hydrological maps, I identified intersections of unique environments as candidates for sampling in the 4700 km2 county. By querying data from other shortgrass and mixed-grass prairie floras, I produced a checklist of likely plants in Beaver County. Utilizing these methods, I documented 60 new county records in two field seasons, including one state record, Gutierrezia sphaerocephala, roundleaf snakeweed (Asteraceae). Species-rich families were typical for the Great Plains: Asteraceae (19.4% of the flora), Poaceae (16.4%), and Fabaceae (8%). The largest genera were Oenothera (Onagraceae, 15 species), Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae, 14 species), and Eragrostis (Poaceae, 9 species). The four vegetation types in Beaver County, bottomland, stabilized dune, sandsage grassland, and shortgrass prairie, were also recorded and had their species compositions studied. Special attention was paid to introduced species (63 species, 12.7% of the flora), as exotic species can displace native plants. Beaver County floristic data was used to test community assembly hypotheses, by analyzing the phylogenetic relatedness of four communities on a hydrological gradient from river bottom to upland dune. The relatedness of exotic species in each community was also analyzed to infer how species naturalize along a western Great Plains hydrological gradient and inform management of an economically important and anthropogenically disturbed region. Significant phylogenetic clustering, representative of environmental filtering, was found in the wetter communities of the River Bottom and Terrace, while the dunes showed random assemblage. Inclusion of exotic species increased clustering in the wetter communities. Possible abiotic factors that filter plants are drought and salinity

The Influence of Symbiont Diversity on the Functional Biology of a Model Sea Anemone

Cnidarian–dinoflagellate symbioses, particularly those between anthozoans and dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium (commonly referred to as zooxanthellae) are widespread in the marine environment. They are responsible for the formation of coral reefs and are thus of great ecological importance. In recent years there has been an increase in the frequency and severity of episodes of coral bleaching resulting in degradation and mortality of coral reefs on a global scale. In order to gain a deeper understanding of how corals can adapt to changing environmental conditions, the effect that symbiont type has on the persistence and physiology of an association needs to be ascertained. The aim of this research was to determine how different symbiont types affect the nutritional biology and intracellular physiology of the symbiosis when in association with the sea anemone Aiptasia pulchella. The specific objectives of the study were to; (1) determine whether different symbiont types are equally as adept at supporting the energetic demands of the same host; (2) determine if internal pH (pHi) is a reflection of symbiont type and whether the optimal pH for photosynthesis coincides with the host cell pHi; and (3) test the influence of Symbiodinium type on host tissue glycerol and glucose pools. In order to answer these questions, aposymbiotic (i.e. symbiont-free) sea anemones were infected with different Symbiodinium types and the relationship between symbiont type, photosynthetic performance and autotrophic potential was tested. A range of ‘normal’ and novel cnidarian–dinoflagellate symbioses was also used to measure host cell pHi and to determine the optimal pHi of isolated intact symbiosomes (i.e. the vacuoles that house the symbionts), as well as to compare the amounts of free glycerol and glucose (metabolites) present in the host tissues. Different host-symbiont combinations were found to have different photosynthetic and respiratory attributes. Earlier onset of full autotrophy (i.e. when all metabolic carbon demands of the symbiosis were met by photosynthesis) and higher CZAR values (i.e. the contribution of zooxanthellae to animal respiration) were demonstrated by symbioses hosting Symbiodinium B1 both from the original (homologous) and different (heterologous) host. The study showed that Symbiodinium types differ in their pH optima and that the optimal pHi for photosynthesis does not always match the actual measured pHi. Symbiont type was also shown to have an effect on host tissue glycerol and glucose pools, with the associations harbouring the homologous Symbiodinium B1 attaining the highest concentrations of both metabolites. Findings from this study suggest that corals may be able to maintain an association with a range of Symbiodinium types, and hence potentially switch as a consequence of bleaching. The new symbiont type may not be as nutritionally advantageous as the original type however, which could have implications for the growth and survivorship of the coral, unless it is able to supplement its carbon demands heterotrophically. The rapid proliferation of some of the heterologous Symbiodinium types (e.g. Symbiodinium E2) inside the host indicates that, after bleaching, there is potential for fast symbiont establishment. The reduced carbon contribution of these heterologous symbionts may not be a major concern should the coral be able to reinstate the more nutritionally advantageous symbiont as the dominant type during bleaching recovery. Finally, the rapid proliferation demonstrated by the heterologous Symbiodinium types and the associated metabolic cost to the host, could be an indication of the opportunistic nature of some of these types and may indicate a shift towards parasitism. It is imperative to extend this type of work to corals in the field to determine how these associations behave in nature. Also, in order to get a clearer picture of the diversity in symbiosis physiology, a wider range of Symbiodinium types needs to be investigated

Anti-Hypochlorite and Catalytic Activity of Commercially Available Moringa oleifera Diet Supplement

Aiming at the assessment of the pro-health, and especially anti-hypochlorite properties of Moringa oleifera species a representative, commercially available Moringaoleifera dietary supplement was used as a substrate for the preparation of aqueous Moringa extract. The anti-hypochlorite activity of the extract was assessed using the hypochlorite-specific coumarin-based fluorescence turn-off sensor, namely 7-diethylamino-coumarin-3-carboxylic acid (7-DCCA). This compound was synthesized via the Knoevenagel condensation of 4-diethylamino-2-hydroxybenzaldehyde with Meldrum’sacidandtheMoringaextractwasemployedasamediumandcatalyst. Moreover,thetotal phenoliccontent(TPC)aswellasthereactiveoxygenspecies(ROS)–scavengingabilityoftheaqueous Moringa extract were determined. The results obtained demonstrated the applicability of Moringa extract as an anti-hypochlorite agent. Additionally, the satisfactory yield of the 7-DCCA obtained suggests the usefulness of the extract as a catalyst and the reaction medium. The antioxidative potentialoftheextractwasnotablylowerthanthatofthestandard(TROLOX).DeterminationofTPC in 100 g of the dry weight (DW) of studied material revealed a high number of polyphones present

Anti-Hypochlorite, Antioxidant, and Catalytic Activity of Three Polyphenol-Rich Super-Foods Investigated with the Use of Coumarin-Based Sensors

The anti-hypochlorite activity of açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.), goji (Lycium barbarum L.) and schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) fruit extracts were assessed by determining the reactive chlorine species (RCS)-scavenging ability of these three “super-food” berries. In addition, the aqueous extracts obtained were employed as both the media and the catalyst in a green chemistry approach to the synthesis of a coumarin-based fluorescence turn-off sensor, which was then used for anti-hypochlorite activity testing. The aqueous extracts were also assessed for total phenolic content (TPC), using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, and the antioxidant activity using the ABTS+• assay. Moreover, the main water-soluble polyphenolic constituents of the extracts were identified by the HPLC-PDA-ESI-MS technique. Among the extracts tested, açaí demonstrated the highest anti-hypochlorite and antioxidant activities, while the highest TPC value was found for the goji extract. All extracts demonstrated modest catalytic activity as Knoevenagel condensation catalysts

Attitudes towards physical education lessons in students at different levels of education

School physical education consists in interactions between teachers and students. It is important that each of those present in the classroom feel satisfied with their own results, but also with the way in which the required contents are taught. The aim of the study was to determine the attitudes of students towards physical education classes at different levels of education. The survey was conducted in September 2016 in a group of 157 students from the sixth grade of a primary school, third grade of a junior high school, and from a high school. The results of the survey were analysed separately for each level of education and each sex, and then girls and boys were compared between age groups. Schools from Bielsko-Biała which have similar conditions in terms of equipment and place of teaching classes were selected for the survey. The survey questionnaire by S. Strzyżewski and K. Górna (1989) was used in the study. The results showed that many elements of the lesson remain to discourage the student from practising. Insignificant differences were found depending on the level of education. The youngest girls and boys at every level of education like attending classes, but this tendency is not observed in the oldest girls