Benchmarking LiDAR Sensors for Development and Evaluation of Automotive Perception

Environment perception and representation are some of the most critical tasks in automated driving. To meet the stringent needs of safety standards such as ISO 26262 there is a need for efficient quantitative evaluation of the perceived information. However, to use typical methods of evaluation, such as comparing using annotated data, is not scalable due to the manual effort involved. There is thus a need to automate the process of data annotation. This paper focuses on the LiDAR sensor and aims to identify the limitations of the sensor and provides a methodology to generate annotated data of a measurable quality. The limitations with the sensor are analysed in a Systematic Literature Review on available academic texts and refined by unstructured interviews with experts. The main contributions are 1) the SLR with related interviews to identify LiDAR sensor limitations and 2) the associated methodology which allows us to generate world representations

Conditioned Pain Modulation Is Associated with Common Polymorphisms in the Serotonin Transporter Gene

BACKGROUND: Variation in the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene (SLC6A4) has been shown to influence a wide range of affective processes. Low 5-HTT gene-expression has also been suggested to increase the risk of chronic pain. Conditioned pain modulation (CPM)--i.e. 'pain inhibits pain'--is impaired in chronic pain states and, reciprocally, aberrations of CPM may predict the development of chronic pain. Therefore we hypothesized that a common variation in the SLC6A4 is associated with inter-individual variation in CPM. Forty-five healthy subjects recruited on the basis of tri-allelic 5-HTTLPR genotype, with inferred high or low 5-HTT-expression, were included in a double-blind study. A submaximal-effort tourniquet test was used to provide a standardized degree of conditioning ischemic pain. Individualized noxious heat and pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) were used as subjective test-modalities and the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) was used to provide an objective neurophysiological window into spinal processing. RESULTS: The low, as compared to the high, 5-HTT-expressing group exhibited significantly reduced CPM-mediated pain inhibition for PPTs (p = 0.02) and heat-pain (p = 0.02). The CPM-mediated inhibition of the NFR, gauged by increases in NFR-threshold, did not differ significantly between groups (p = 0.75). Inhibition of PPTs and heat-pain were correlated (Spearman's rho = 0.35, p = 0.02), whereas the NFR-threshold increase was not significantly correlated with degree of inhibition of these subjectively reported modalities. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate the involvement of the tri-allelic 5-HTTLPR genotype in explaining clinically relevant inter-individual differences in pain perception and regulation. Our results also illustrate that shifts in NFR-thresholds do not necessarily correlate to the modulation of experienced pain. We discuss various possible mechanisms underlying these findings and suggest a role of regulation of 5-HT receptors along the neuraxis as a function of differential 5-HTT-expression

Perception of Thermal Pain and the Thermal Grill Illusion Is Associated with Polymorphisms in the Serotonin Transporter Gene

AIM: The main aim of this study was to assess if the perception of thermal pain thresholds is associated with genetically inferred levels of expression of the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT). Additionally, the perception of the so-called thermal grill illusion (TGI) was assessed. Forty-four healthy individuals (27 females, 17 males) were selected a-priori based on their 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 ('tri-allelic 5-HTTLPR') genotype, with inferred high or low 5-HTT expression. Thresholds for heat- and cold-pain were determined along with the sensory and affective dimensions of the TGI. RESULTS: Thresholds to heat- and cold-pain correlated strongly (rho  = -0.58, p<0.001). Individuals in the low 5-HTT-expressing group were significantly less sensitive to heat-pain (p = 0.02) and cold-pain (p = 0.03), compared to the high-expressing group. A significant gender-by-genotype interaction also emerged for cold-pain perception (p = 0.02); low 5-HTT-expressing females were less sensitive. The TGI was rated as significantly more unpleasant (affective-motivational dimension) than painful (sensory-discriminatory dimension), (p<0.001). Females in the low 5-HTT expressing group rated the TGI as significantly less unpleasant than high 5-HTT expressing females (p<0.05), with no such differences among men. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrate an association between inferred low 5-HTT expression and elevated thresholds to thermal pain in healthy non-depressed individuals. Despite the fact that reduced 5-HTT expression is a risk factor for chronic pain we found it to be related to hypoalgesia for threshold thermal pain. Low 5-HTT expression is, however, also a risk factor for depression where thermal insensitivity is often seen. Our results may thus contribute to a better understanding of the molecular underpinnings of such paradoxical hypoalgesia. The results point to a differential regulation of thermoafferent-information along the neuraxis on the basis of 5-HTT expression and gender. The TGI, suggested to rely on the central integration of thermoafferent-information, may prove a valuable tool in probing the affective-motivational dimension of these putative mechanisms

Genetic variants in novel pathways influence blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk.

Blood pressure is a heritable trait influenced by several biological pathways and responsive to environmental stimuli. Over one billion people worldwide have hypertension (≥140 mm Hg systolic blood pressure or  ≥90 mm Hg diastolic blood pressure). Even small increments in blood pressure are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events. This genome-wide association study of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, which used a multi-stage design in 200,000 individuals of European descent, identified sixteen novel loci: six of these loci contain genes previously known or suspected to regulate blood pressure (GUCY1A3-GUCY1B3, NPR3-C5orf23, ADM, FURIN-FES, GOSR2, GNAS-EDN3); the other ten provide new clues to blood pressure physiology. A genetic risk score based on 29 genome-wide significant variants was associated with hypertension, left ventricular wall thickness, stroke and coronary artery disease, but not kidney disease or kidney function. We also observed associations with blood pressure in East Asian, South Asian and African ancestry individuals. Our findings provide new insights into the genetics and biology of blood pressure, and suggest potential novel therapeutic pathways for cardiovascular disease prevention

HAMMS : Korsningshantering förblandningen av mänskligt och autonomtframförda fordon

The purpose of this report is to improve the flow of trafficin intersections through the use of a dynamic algorithm.People spend on average more than six weeks commuting towork in Stockholm every year. A large part of the time thatis spent in traffic is due to the time delay in intersections.In this report, sensors that measure speed and distanceto the vehicle are used instead of detectors that only knowif a car is there or not. There are existing solutions that canoptimise the flow for autonomous cars but since the trafficmay consist of a mix of autonomous and human drivenvehicles during the upcoming 40 years those solutions arenot usable for some time.In this work, a system that can handle both autonomousand human driven vehicles is created. The limitation of thesystem is that it can only receive two cars coming from differentdirections simultaneously. The system does not workfor car queues. The system measures the speed of- and thedistance to the vehicles continuously.According to the simulations that were made the algorithmthat has been designed through this project is moretime efficient than the system that is in place today, assumingthat the assumptions that were made for the currentsystem are correct.The conclusion in this report is that it is possible tomake a system that is more time efficient than the one thatis in use today.Syftet med den här rapporten är att förbättra flödet ikorsningar genom en dynamisk algoritm. Människor sitterdrygt 6 veckor i bilköer varje år. En stor del av av denspenderande tiden i traffiken är på grund av att fordonbehöver stanna i korsningar.I den här rapporten har sensorer som mäter hastighetoch distans använts istället för dagens detektorer som endastkänner av om ett fordon kör över detektorn eller inte.Det finns andra rapporter med lösningar för att öka flödeti korsningar för självkörande bilar men om man kollar pådet kommande 40 åren kommer det troligtsvis att vara enblandning av självkörande och mänskligt körda bilar.I det här arbetet skapas ett system som kan interageramed både mänskligt körda och autonoma bilar. Begränsningarnai det här systemet är att systemet endast kan taemot två bilar som kommer från olika ingångar i korsningensamtidigt. Systemet fungerar inte för bilköer. Systemet mäterden nuvarande hastigheten och distansen på fordonen.Systemet fungerar för alla olika kombinationer av mänskligtoch självkörande bilar.Resultatet av den här rapporten är att en algoritm harutvecklats och är mer tidseffektivt än systemet som användsi Sverige idag, med våra antaganden om systemet som harutveklats i den här rapporten och systemet som användsidag. Resultatet är baserat på korsningar där bara två bilarmöts utan köer.Slutsatsen av den här rapporten är att det är möjligtatt göra ett system som är mer tidseffektivt än systemetvi använder oss av idag, men vi kan inte säkertsätlla attsystemet i den här rapporten är mer robus och driftsäkertän det som används i Sverige idag

HAMMS : Korsningshantering förblandningen av mänskligt och autonomtframförda fordon

The purpose of this report is to improve the flow of trafficin intersections through the use of a dynamic algorithm.People spend on average more than six weeks commuting towork in Stockholm every year. A large part of the time thatis spent in traffic is due to the time delay in intersections.In this report, sensors that measure speed and distanceto the vehicle are used instead of detectors that only knowif a car is there or not. There are existing solutions that canoptimise the flow for autonomous cars but since the trafficmay consist of a mix of autonomous and human drivenvehicles during the upcoming 40 years those solutions arenot usable for some time.In this work, a system that can handle both autonomousand human driven vehicles is created. The limitation of thesystem is that it can only receive two cars coming from differentdirections simultaneously. The system does not workfor car queues. The system measures the speed of- and thedistance to the vehicles continuously.According to the simulations that were made the algorithmthat has been designed through this project is moretime efficient than the system that is in place today, assumingthat the assumptions that were made for the currentsystem are correct.The conclusion in this report is that it is possible tomake a system that is more time efficient than the one thatis in use today.Syftet med den här rapporten är att förbättra flödet ikorsningar genom en dynamisk algoritm. Människor sitterdrygt 6 veckor i bilköer varje år. En stor del av av denspenderande tiden i traffiken är på grund av att fordonbehöver stanna i korsningar.I den här rapporten har sensorer som mäter hastighetoch distans använts istället för dagens detektorer som endastkänner av om ett fordon kör över detektorn eller inte.Det finns andra rapporter med lösningar för att öka flödeti korsningar för självkörande bilar men om man kollar pådet kommande 40 åren kommer det troligtsvis att vara enblandning av självkörande och mänskligt körda bilar.I det här arbetet skapas ett system som kan interageramed både mänskligt körda och autonoma bilar. Begränsningarnai det här systemet är att systemet endast kan taemot två bilar som kommer från olika ingångar i korsningensamtidigt. Systemet fungerar inte för bilköer. Systemet mäterden nuvarande hastigheten och distansen på fordonen.Systemet fungerar för alla olika kombinationer av mänskligtoch självkörande bilar.Resultatet av den här rapporten är att en algoritm harutvecklats och är mer tidseffektivt än systemet som användsi Sverige idag, med våra antaganden om systemet som harutveklats i den här rapporten och systemet som användsidag. Resultatet är baserat på korsningar där bara två bilarmöts utan köer.Slutsatsen av den här rapporten är att det är möjligtatt göra ett system som är mer tidseffektivt än systemetvi använder oss av idag, men vi kan inte säkertsätlla attsystemet i den här rapporten är mer robus och driftsäkertän det som används i Sverige idag

Prestandamätning av en LiDAR-baserad pseudo sanning för omvärldsuppfattning i en fordonsapplikation.

Environmental perception and representation are among the most critical tasks in automated driving. To meet the high demands on reliability from clients and the needs of safety standards, such as ISO 26262, there is a need for automated quantitative evaluation of perceived information. However, the typical evaluation methods currently being used, such as a comparison with Ground Truth (GT), is not feasible in the real world. Creating a substitute for GT with annotated data is not efficiently scalable due to the manual effort involved in evaluating the sheer number of scenarios, environmental conditions, etc. Hence, there is a need to automate the generation of data used as GT. This thesis focuses on a methodology to generate a substitute for GT data, named Pseudo Ground Truth (PGT), with a LiDAR sensor and to identify the precautions needed if this PGT is to be used in the development of perception systems. This thesis aims to assess the proposed methodology in a common scenario. The limitations with the LiDAR sensor are analyzed by performing a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) on available academic texts, conducting semi-structured interviews with experts from one of the largest heavy vehicle manufacturers in Europe, Scania CV AB and lastly implementation of an experimental algorithm to create a PGT. The main contributions are 1) a list of found limitations with the current LiDAR sensors from a SLR and semi-structured interviews and 2) a proposed methodology, which assesses the use of a LiDAR sensor as GT in a scenarios coupled with a set of precautions that has to be taken if the method were used in the development of new perception systems.Perception och representation av omgivningen är några av de viktigaste underfunktionerna i självkörande fordon. För att möta de högt ställda kraven på noggrannhet och stabilitet från kunder och samtidigt kraven för funktionell säkerhet som ISO 26262, finns det ett behov att automatisera kvantitativ utvärdering av samlad information. Användningen av typiska utvärderingsmetoder som jämförelse med en Sanning (GT) är inte möjligt i verkligheten. En GT baserad på annoterad data är inte effektivt skalbar på grund av det manuella arbetet som är involverat i utvärderingen av de stora antalet av scenarion, klimatförhållanden, etc. Det finns därför ett behov av att automatisera genereringen av en GT skapad av samlad mätdata. Den här studien fokuserar på en metodik för att generera en Pseudo Sanning (PGT) med en LiDAR sensor och identifiera de åtgärderna som behöver tas om PGTn ska användas i utvecklingen av ett perceptionssystem. Studien har som mål att utvärdera den föreslagna metodiken i ett vanligt förekommande scenario. Begränsningarna med LiDAR sensorn är analyserade genom en Systematisk Literatursökning (SLR) på tillgängliga akademiska texter, semi-strukturerade intervjuer med experter på en av de största tillverkarna av tunga fordon i Europa, Scania CV AB och slutligen implementering av en experimentell algoritm för att skapa en PGT. Huvudbidragen är 1) en lista med begränsningar av nuvarande LiDAR sensorer funna genom en SLR och semistrukturerade intervjuer och 2) en föreslagen metod som utvärderar användandet av en LiDAR sensor som GT i ett scenario, tillsammans med åtgärder som behöver tas om metoden skulle användas i utvecklingen av perceptionssystem

HAMMS : Korsningshantering förblandningen av mänskligt och autonomtframförda fordon

The purpose of this report is to improve the flow of trafficin intersections through the use of a dynamic algorithm.People spend on average more than six weeks commuting towork in Stockholm every year. A large part of the time thatis spent in traffic is due to the time delay in intersections.In this report, sensors that measure speed and distanceto the vehicle are used instead of detectors that only knowif a car is there or not. There are existing solutions that canoptimise the flow for autonomous cars but since the trafficmay consist of a mix of autonomous and human drivenvehicles during the upcoming 40 years those solutions arenot usable for some time.In this work, a system that can handle both autonomousand human driven vehicles is created. The limitation of thesystem is that it can only receive two cars coming from differentdirections simultaneously. The system does not workfor car queues. The system measures the speed of- and thedistance to the vehicles continuously.According to the simulations that were made the algorithmthat has been designed through this project is moretime efficient than the system that is in place today, assumingthat the assumptions that were made for the currentsystem are correct.The conclusion in this report is that it is possible tomake a system that is more time efficient than the one thatis in use today.Syftet med den här rapporten är att förbättra flödet ikorsningar genom en dynamisk algoritm. Människor sitterdrygt 6 veckor i bilköer varje år. En stor del av av denspenderande tiden i traffiken är på grund av att fordonbehöver stanna i korsningar.I den här rapporten har sensorer som mäter hastighetoch distans använts istället för dagens detektorer som endastkänner av om ett fordon kör över detektorn eller inte.Det finns andra rapporter med lösningar för att öka flödeti korsningar för självkörande bilar men om man kollar pådet kommande 40 åren kommer det troligtsvis att vara enblandning av självkörande och mänskligt körda bilar.I det här arbetet skapas ett system som kan interageramed både mänskligt körda och autonoma bilar. Begränsningarnai det här systemet är att systemet endast kan taemot två bilar som kommer från olika ingångar i korsningensamtidigt. Systemet fungerar inte för bilköer. Systemet mäterden nuvarande hastigheten och distansen på fordonen.Systemet fungerar för alla olika kombinationer av mänskligtoch självkörande bilar.Resultatet av den här rapporten är att en algoritm harutvecklats och är mer tidseffektivt än systemet som användsi Sverige idag, med våra antaganden om systemet som harutveklats i den här rapporten och systemet som användsidag. Resultatet är baserat på korsningar där bara två bilarmöts utan köer.Slutsatsen av den här rapporten är att det är möjligtatt göra ett system som är mer tidseffektivt än systemetvi använder oss av idag, men vi kan inte säkertsätlla attsystemet i den här rapporten är mer robus och driftsäkertän det som används i Sverige idag

Speech following DBS for essential tremor : Effects of chronic and high-amplitude stimulation in the posterior subthalamic area

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) can be very effective in alleviating tremor, but adverse effects on speech are frequently reported, especially following bilateral DBS. Most of the existing literature on DBS and speech deals with the effects of DBS targeting the subthalamic nucleus or the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus, which are the traditional targets for Parkinson’s disease and essential tremor, respectively. More recently, the posterior subthalamic area (PSA) has been highlighted as a particularly effective target for tremor; however, there are limited studies of PSA-DBS effects on speech. We report speech outcomes for 14 persons with essential tremor during chronic PSA-DBS and at unilateral high-amplitude PSA-stimulation. The objectives were to answer the following questions: To what extent is speech function, and in particular articulation and voice, affected by chronic PSA-DBS? How is speech affected by unilateral high-amplitude stimulation Is bilateral chronic PSA-DBS worse for speech than unilateral PSA-stimulation

Speech following DBS for essential tremor : Effects of chronic and high-amplitude stimulation in the posterior subthalamic area

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) can be very effective in alleviating tremor, but adverse effects on speech are frequently reported, especially following bilateral DBS. Most of the existing literature on DBS and speech deals with the effects of DBS targeting the subthalamic nucleus or the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus, which are the traditional targets for Parkinson’s disease and essential tremor, respectively. More recently, the posterior subthalamic area (PSA) has been highlighted as a particularly effective target for tremor; however, there are limited studies of PSA-DBS effects on speech. We report speech outcomes for 14 persons with essential tremor during chronic PSA-DBS and at unilateral high-amplitude PSA-stimulation. The objectives were to answer the following questions: To what extent is speech function, and in particular articulation and voice, affected by chronic PSA-DBS? How is speech affected by unilateral high-amplitude stimulation Is bilateral chronic PSA-DBS worse for speech than unilateral PSA-stimulation