Four individually identified paired dopamine neurons signal reward in larval Drosophila

Dopaminergic neurons serve multiple functions, including reinforcement processing during associative learning [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12]. It is thus warranted to understand which dopaminergic neurons mediate which function. We study larval Drosophila, in which only approximately 120 of a total of 10,000 neurons are dopaminergic, as judged by the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate- limiting enzyme of dopamine biosynthesis [ 5 and 13]. Dopaminergic neurons mediating reinforcement in insect olfactory learning target the mushroom bodies, a higher-order “cortical” brain region [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 14 and 15]. We discover four previously undescribed paired neurons, the primary protocerebral anterior medial (pPAM) neurons. These neurons are TH positive and subdivide the medial lobe of the mushroom body into four distinct subunits. These pPAM neurons are acutely necessary for odor-sugar reward learning and require intact TH function in this process. However, they are dispensable for aversive learning and innate behavior toward the odors and sugars employed. Optogenetical activation of pPAM neurons is sufficient as a reward. Thus, the pPAM neurons convey a likely dopaminergic reward signal. In contrast, DL1 cluster neurons convey a corresponding punishment signal [5], suggesting a cellular division of labor to convey dopaminergic reward and punishment signals. On the level of individually identified neurons, this uncovers an organizational principle shared with adult Drosophila and mammals [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 and 10] (but see [6]). The numerical simplicity and connectomic tractability of the larval nervous system [ 16, 17, 18 and 19] now offers a prospect for studying circuit principles of dopamine function at unprecedented resolution

Innate Attractiveness and Associative Learnability of Odors Can Be Dissociated in Larval Drosophila

We investigate olfactory associative learning in larval Drosophila. A reciprocal training design is used, such that one group of animals receives a reward in the presence of odor X but not in the presence of odor Y (Train: X+ // Y), whereas another group is trained reciprocally (Train: X // Y+). After training, differences in odor preference between these reciprocally trained groups in a choice test (Test: X -- Y) reflect associative learning. The current study, after showing which odor pairs can be used for such learning experiments, 1) introduces a one-odor version of such reciprocal paradigm that allows estimating the learnability of single odors. Regarding this reciprocal one-odor paradigm, we show that 2) paired presentations of an odor with a reward increase odor preference above baseline, whereas unpaired presentations of odor and reward decrease odor preference below baseline; this suggests that odors can become predictive either of reward or of reward absence. Furthermore, we show that 3) innate attractiveness and associative learnability can be dissociated. These data deepen our understanding of odor-reward learning in larval Drosophila on the behavioral level, and thus foster its neurogenetic analysis

Functional architecture of reward learning in mushroom body extrinsic neurons of larval Drosophila.

The brain adaptively integrates present sensory input, past experience, and options for future action. The insect mushroom body exemplifies how a central brain structure brings about such integration. Here we use a combination of systematic single-cell labeling, connectomics, transgenic silencing, and activation experiments to study the mushroom body at single-cell resolution, focusing on the behavioral architecture of its input and output neurons (MBINs and MBONs), and of the mushroom body intrinsic APL neuron. Our results reveal the identity and morphology of almost all of these 44 neurons in stage 3 Drosophila larvae. Upon an initial screen, functional analyses focusing on the mushroom body medial lobe uncover sparse and specific functions of its dopaminergic MBINs, its MBONs, and of the GABAergic APL neuron across three behavioral tasks, namely odor preference, taste preference, and associative learning between odor and taste. Our results thus provide a cellular-resolution study case of how brains organize behavior

Pavlovian conditioning of larval drosophila: an illustrated, multilingual, hands-on manual for odor-taste associative learning in maggots

Larval Drosophila offer a study case for behavioral neurogenetics that is simple enough to be experimentally tractable, yet complex enough to be worth the effort. We provide a detailed, hands-on manual for Pavlovian odor-reward learning in these animals. Given the versatility of Drosophila for genetic analyses, combined with the evolutionarily shared genetic heritage with humans, the paradigm has utility not only in behavioral neurogenetics and experimental psychology, but for translational biomedicine as well. Together with the upcoming total synaptic connectome of the Drosophila nervous system and the possibilities of single-cell-specific transgene expression, it offers enticing opportunities for research. Indeed, the paradigm has already been adopted by a number of labs and is robust enough to be used for teaching in classroom settings. This has given rise to a demand for a detailed, hands- on manual directed at newcomers and/or at laboratory novices, and this is what we here provide

Lern- und Plastizitätsmechanismen in Drosophila Larven

According to a changing environment it is crucial for animals to make experience and learn about it. Sensing, integrating and learning to associate different kinds of modalities enables animals to expect future events and to adjust behavior in the way, expected as the most profitable. Complex processes as memory formation and storage make it necessary to investigate learning and memory on different levels. In this context Drosophila melanogaster represents a powerful model organism. As the adult brain of the fly is still quite complex, I chose the third instar larva as model - the more simple the system, the easier to isolate single, fundamental principles of learning. In this thesis I addressed several kinds of questions on different mechanism of olfactory associative and synaptic plasiticity in Drosophila larvae. I focused on short-term memory throughout my thesis. First, investigating larval learning on behavioral level, I developed a one-odor paradigm for olfactory associative conditioning. This enables to estimate the learnability of single odors, reduces the complexity of the task and simplify analyses of "learning mutants". It further allows to balance learnability of odors for generalization-type experiments to describe the olfactory "coding space". Furthermore I could show that innate attractiveness and learnability can be dissociated and found finally that paired presentation of a given odor with reward increase performance, whereas unpaired presentations of these two stimuli decrease performance, indicating that larva are able to learn about the presence as well as about the absence of a reward. Second, on behavioral level, together with Thomas Niewalda and colleagues we focussed on salt processing in the context of choice, feeding and learning. Salt is required in several physiological processes, but can neither be synthesized nor stored. Various salt concentrations shift the valence from attraction to repulsion in reflexive behaviour. Interestingly, the reinforcing effect of salt in learning is shifted by more than one order of magnitude toward higher concentrations. Thus, the input pathways for gustatory behavior appear to be more sensitive than the ones supporting gustatory reinforcement, which is may be due to the dissociation of the reflexive and the reinforcing signalling pathways of salt. Third, in cooperation with Michael Schleyer we performed a series of behavioral gustatory, olfactory preference tests and larval learning experiments. Based on the available neuroanatomical and behavioral data we propose a model regarding chemosensory processing, odor-tastant memory trace formation and the 'decision' like process. It incorporates putative sites of interaction between olfactory and gustatory pathways during the establishment as well as behavioral expression of odor-tastant memory. We claim that innate olfactory behavior is responsive in nature and suggest that associative conditioned behavior is not a simple substitution like process, but driven more likely by the expectation of its outcome. Fourth, together with Birgit Michels and colleagues we investigated the cellular site and molecular mode of Synapsin, an evolutionarily conserved, presynaptic vesicular phosphoprotein and its action in larval learning. We confirmed a previously described learning impairment upon loss of Synapsin. We localized this Synapsin dependent memory trace in the mushroom bodies, a third-order "cortical" brain region, and could further show on molecular level, that Synapsin is as a downstream element of the AC-cAMP-PKA signalling cascade. This study provides a comprehensive chain of explanation from the molecular level to an associative behavioral change. Fifth, in the main part of my thesis I focused on molecular level on another synaptic protein, the Synapse associated protein of 47kDa (Sap47) and its role in larval behavior. As a member of a phylogenetically conserved gene family of hitherto unknown function. It is localized throughout the whole neuropil of larval brains and associated with presynaptic vesicles. Upon loss of Sap47 larvae exhibit normal sensory detection of the to-be-associated stimuli as well as normal motor performance and basic synaptic transmission. Interestingly, short-term plasticity is distorted and odorant–tastant associative learning ability is reduced. This defect in associative function could be rescued by restoring Sap47 expression. Therefore, this report is the first to suggest a function for Sap47 and specifically argues that Sap47 is required for synaptic as well as for behavioral plasticity in Drosophila larva. This prompts the question whether its homologs are required for synaptic and behavioral plasticity also in other species. Further in the last part of my thesis I contributed to the study of Ayse Yarali. Her central topic was the role of the White protein in punishment and relief learning in adult flies. Whereas stimuli that precede shock during training are subsequently avoided as predictors for punishment, stimuli that follow shock during training are later on approached, as they predict relief. Concerning the loss of White we report that pain-relief learning as well as punishment learning is changed. My contribution was a comparison between wild type and the white1118 mutant larvae in odor-reward learning. It turned out that a loss of White has no effect on larval odorant-tastant learning. This study, regarding painrelief learning provides the very first hints concerning the genetic determinants of this form of learning.In einer belebten, sich stetig wandelnden Umwelt ist es essenziell für Lebewesen, Informationen wahrzunehmen und Erfahrungen zu sammeln, um ihr Verhalten entsprechend zu modifizieren. Verschiedene Arten von Reizen werden wahrgenommen, integriert und gespeichert. Dies ermöglicht Tieren künftige Ereignisse vorherzusehen und ihr Verhalten entsprechend ihren Erwartungen anzupassen. Die Komplexität von Lernprozessen und Gedächtnisspeicherung macht es notwendig, diese Prozesse auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen zu untersuchen. In diesem Zusammenhang hat sich Drosophila melanogaster als besonders geeigneter Modellorganismus herauskristallisiert. Trotz einer relativ geringen neuronalen Komplexität im Vergleich zu höheren Organismen, zeigt sie ein reichhaltiges Verhaltensrepertoire. Dennoch ist das Gehirn von adulten Furchtfliegen ein hoch komplexes System. Je einfacher ein System ist, umso vielversprechender ist es scheinbar, einzelne fundamentale Aspekte dieses Systems zu isolieren und zu untersuchen. In meiner Arbeit nutzte ich daher als Modelorganismus das dritte Larvenstadium der Fliege und untersuchte auf verschiedenen Ebenen unterschiedliche Mechanismen olfaktorischer, assoziativer und synaptischer Plastizität. Dabei fokussierte ich mich stets auf Kurzzeitgedächtnis. Zunächst untersuchte ich assoziatives Lernen auf Verhaltensebene. Hierfür entwickelte ich ein Ein-Duft-Lernparadigma für olfaktorische klassische Konditionierung von Drosophila Larven. Dies ermöglicht, die Lernbarkeit von einzelnen Düften zu untersuchen, reduziert die Komplexität der Aufgabenstellung für die Larven und vereinfacht die Analyse von Lernmutanten. Weiterhin erlaubt es die Lernbarkeit von Düften für Generalisierungs-experimente zu balancieren, um zu beschreiben, wie Duftidentitäten im Nervensystem kodiert werden. Ich konnte zeigen, dass die Lernbarkeit von Düften nicht unmittelbar mit der naiven Duftpräferenz korreliert. Ferner konnte in dieser Studie nachgewiesen werden, dass durch gepaarte Präsentation von Duft und Zuckerbelohnung die Präferenz im Bezug auf diesen Duft zunimmt, wohingegen ungepaarte Präsentation dieser beiden Reize zu einer Abnahme der Duftpräferenz führt. Dies weist darauf hin, dass es Larven auch möglich ist etwas über die Abwesenheit der Belohnung zu lernen. In einer zweiten Studie befasste ich mich, in Zusammenarbeit mit Thomas Niewalda, mit der Verarbeitung von Salz im Bezug auf das Wahl-, Fress- und Lernverhalten von Drosophila Larven. Salze spielen in mehreren physiologischen Prozessen eine bedeutende Rolle, können von Larven aber weder synthetisiert noch gespeichert werden. Unterschiedliche Salzkonzentrationen haben unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf das Larvenverhalten. Während niedrige Konzentrationen von Larven bevorzugt werden, werden hohe Salzkonzentrationen vermieden. Lernexperimente zeigten, dass Salz ebenfalls dosisabhängig als positiver oder negativer Verstärker wirkt. Interessanterweise zeigt sich im Vergleich zum Wahl- und Fressverhalten, dass der Punkt, an dem Salz von einem appetitiven zu einem aversiven Stimulus wird, um mehr als eine Größenordnung in Richtung höherer Konzentrationen verschoben ist. Die Sensitivität der gustatorischen Transduktion ist somit höher als die Transduktion des Verstärkersignals. Möglicherweise liegt dies an der Dissoziation dieser beiden Transduktionswege. In der dritten Studie dieser Arbeit wurden, in Kooperation mit Michael Schleyer, eine Vielzahl an olfaktorischen und gustatorischen Präferenztests, sowie eine Reihe an Lernexperimenten durchgeführt. Basierend auf bekannten Neuroanatomiestudien und unseren Verhaltensdaten, propagieren wir ein Model für Duft- und Geschmacksprozessierung, die Etablierung von Gedächtnisspuren, sowie Entscheidungsprozessen. Sowohl mögliche Interaktionen zwischen olfaktorischen und gustatorischen Transduktionswegen, sowie der Abruf von Gedächtnisinhalten werden berücksichtigt. Wir schlagen vor, dass naives olfaktorisches Verhalten natürlicherweise reflexiv ist. Assoziativ konditioniertes Verhalten kann allerdings nicht als reiner Substitutionsprozess betrachtet werden, sondern wird besser interpretiert im Hinblick auf die Erwartung, die er auslöst, woraufhin ein bestimmtes Verhaltensprogramm gestartet wird. In Zusammenarbeit mit Birgit Michels untersuchte ich auf zellulärer Ebene die molekulare Funktion von Synapsin im assoziativen Lernen von Drosophila Larven. Synapsin gehört zu den hochkonservierten, präsynaptischen, vesikulären Phosphoproteinen. Wir konnten einen früher bereits beschriebenen Lernphänotyp von Synapsin Mutanten Larven bestätigen. Die Synapsin abhängige Gedächtnisspur konnten wir auf wenige Zellen im Pilzkörper, einer dem olfaktorischen Cortex der Vertebraten homologen Struktur, lokalisieren. Auf molekularer Ebene wurde nachgewiesen, dass Synapsin ein Zielprotein in der bekannten AC-cAMP-PKA Lernkaskade ist. Diese Studie zeigt einen Zusammenhang zwischen molekularen Mechanismen assoziativer Plastizität und einer daraus resultierenden Verhaltensänderung der Tiere. In meinem Hauptprojekt befasste ich mich auf molekularer Ebene mit einem weiteren synaptischen Protein, dem Synapsen assoziierten Protein von 47kDa (Sap47) und seiner Rolle im Verhalten von Drosophila Larven. Sap47 wird in allen neuropilen Bereichen expremiert und ist mit synaptischen Vesikeln assoziiert. Das Fehlen von Sap47 beeinflusst weder die Detektion der zu assoziierenden Reize, noch das Kriechverhalten der Larven. Auch die synaptische Übertragung, ausgelöst durch einzelne Stimulationen an der neuromuskulären Synapse, ist nicht beeinträchtigt. Interessanterweise führt das Fehlen von Sap47 sowohl zu veränderter Kurzzeit-Plastizität an dieser Synapse, sowie zu einer Einschränkung in der Bildung von Duft-Zucker-Gedächtnis. Diese Studie liefert einen ersten Hinweis auf eine Funktion von Sap47 in synaptischer und assoziativer Plastizität. Es stellt sich die Frage, ob auch in anderen Organismen die zu Drosophila Sap47-homologen Proteine notwendig für synaptische und Lernplastizität sind. Im letzten Teil meiner Dissertation war ich an einem Projekt von Ayse Yarali beteiligt. Die zentrale Fragestellung in dieser Studie war, ob eine Mutation im white Gen Bestrafungs- und/ oder Erleichterungslernen beeinflusst. Wird ein neutraler Reiz während einer Trainingsphase mit einem Elektroschock bestraft, wird dieser später konsequent vermieden, da er einen Elektroschock vorhersagt (Bestrafungslernen). Eine Umkehrung der Reihenfolge der Stimulipräsentation, sodass dem Schock stets ein neutraler Stimulus folgt, führt später, in der Testphase, zu einer positiven Reaktion auf diesen naiv neutralen Reiz (Erleichterungslernen). Ein Verlust des White Proteins in white1118 Mutanten verändert beide Arten von Gedächtnissen in adulten Fliegen. Meine Beteiligung an dieser Arbeit war ein Vergleich zwischen wildtypischen Larven und white1118 mutanten Larven in Duft-Zucker Assoziationsexperimenten. Es zeigte sich, dass der Verlust dieses Proteins auf larvale Duft-Zucker Konditionierung keinen Einfluss hat. Im Larvenlernen kann somit das Verhalten von transgenen Tieren, die zumeist eine Mutation im white Gen als Markergen tragen, interpretiert werden, ohne die Funktion des white Gens berücksichtigen zu müssen. Im Bezug auf Erleichterungslernen liefert diese Arbeit einen ersten Hinweis auf eine genetische Komponente, der entscheidend für diese Art des assoziativen Lernens ist

Immediate and punitive impact of mechanosensory disturbance on olfactory behaviour of larval Drosophila

The ability to respond to and to learn about mechanosensory disturbance is widespread among animals. Using Drosophila larvae, we describe how the frequency of mechanosensory disturbance (‘buzz’) affects three aspects of behaviour: free locomotion, innate olfactory preference, and potency as a punishment. We report that (i) during 2–3 seconds after buzz onset the larvae slowed down and then turned, arguably to escape this situation; this was seen for buzz frequencies of 10, 100, and 1000 Hz, (ii) innate olfactory preference was reduced when tested in the presence of the buzz; this effect was strongest for the 100 Hz frequency, (iii) after odour-buzz associative training, we observed escape from the buzz-associated odour; this effect was apparent for 10 and 100, but not for 1000 Hz. We discuss the multiple behavioural effects of mechanosensation and stress that the immediate effects on locomotion and the impact as punishment differ in their frequency-dependence. Similar dissociations between immediate, reflexive behavioural effects and reinforcement potency were previously reported for sweet, salty and bitter tastants. It should be interesting to see how these features map onto the organization of sensory, ascending pathways

A behavior-based circuit model of how outcome expectations organize learned behavior in larval Drosophila

Drosophila larvae combine a numerically simple brain, a correspondingly moderate behavioral complexity, and the availability of a rich toolbox for transgenic manipulation. This makes them attractive as a study case when trying to achieve a circuit-level understanding of behavior organization. From a series of behavioral experiments, we suggest a circuitry of chemosensory processing, odor–tastant memory trace formation, and the “decision” process to behaviorally express these memory traces—or not. The model incorporates statements about the neuronal organization of innate vs. conditioned chemosensory behavior, and the types of interaction between olfactory and gustatory pathways during the establishment as well as the behavioral expression of odor–tastant memory traces. It in particular suggests that innate olfactory behavior is responsive in nature, whereas conditioned olfactory behavior is captured better when seen as an action in pursuit of its outcome. It incorporates the available neuroanatomical and behavioral data and thus should be useful as scaffold for the ongoing investigations of the chemo-behavioral system in larval Drosophila

Synapsin is required to "boost" memory strength for highly salient events

Synapsin is an evolutionarily conserved presynaptic phosphoprotein. It is encoded by only one gene in the Drosophila genome and is expressed throughout the nervous system. It regulates the balance between reserve and releasable vesicles, is required to maintain transmission upon heavy demand, and is essential for proper memory function at the behavioral level. Task-relevant sensorimotor functions, however, remain intact in the absence of Synapsin. Using an odor-sugar reward associative learning paradigm in larval Drosophila, we show that memory scores in mutants lacking Synapsin (syn(97)) are lower than in wild-type animals only when more salient, higher concentrations of odor or of the sugar reward are used. Furthermore, we show that Synapsin is selectively required for larval short-term memory. Thus, without Synapsin Drosophila larvae can learn and remember, but Synapsin is required to form memories that match in strength to event salience-in particular to a high saliency of odors, of rewards, or the salient recency of an event. We further show that the residual memory scores upon a lack of Synapsin are not further decreased by an additional lack of the Sap47 protein. In combination with mass spectrometry data showing an up-regulated phosphorylation of Synapsin in the larval nervous system upon a lack of Sap47, this is suggestive of a functional interdependence of Synapsin and Sap47