Increased expression of the homologue of enhancer-of-split 1 protects neurons from beta amyloid neurotoxicity and hints at an alternative role for transforming growth factor beta1 as a neuroprotector

INTRODUCTION: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the brain, which produces progressive neuronal loss and dementia. We recently demonstrated that the noxious effects of Aβ on cultured hippocampal neurons are in part provoked by the antagonism of nerve growth factor (NGF) signalling, which impairs the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) by impeding the tyrosine phosphorylation of I-κBα. As a result, the expression of the homologue of Enhancer-of split 1 (Hes1) gene is downregulated and ultimately, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic connectivity is lost. METHODS: Hes1 activity was promoted in cultured hippocampal neurons by overexpressing a Hes1-encoding plasmid or by upregulating this gene by activating NF-κB through different approaches (overexpressing either the I-κB kinaseβ, or p65/RelA/NF-κB). Alternatively neurons were exposed to TGFβ1. Dendrite patterning, GABAergic connectivity and cell survival were analyzed by immunofluorescence microscopy. Hes1 expression was determined by real-time PCR. NF-κB activation was measured using the dual-luciferase reporter assay. RESULTS: The expression of Hes1 abolished the effects of Aβ on dendritic patterning and GABAergic input, and it prevented the death of the cultured neurons. TGFβ1, a known neuroprotector, could counteract the deleterious effects of Aβ by inducing NF-κB activation following the serine phosphorylation of I-κBα. Indeed, the number of GABAergic terminals generated by inducing Hes1 expression was doubled. CONCLUSION: Our data define some of the mechanisms involved in Aβ-mediated cell death and they point to potential means to counteract this noxious activity

NGF Controls Dendrite Development in Hippocampal Neurons by Binding to p75(NTR) and Modulating the Cellular Targets of Notch

Notch and neurotrophins control neuronal shape, but it is not known whether their signaling pathways intersect. Here we report results from hippocampal neuronal cultures that are in support of this possibility. We found that low cell density or blockade of Notch signaling by a soluble Delta-Fc ligand decreased the mRNA levels of the nuclear targets of Notch, the homologues of enhancer-of-split 1 and 5 (Hes1/5). This effect was associated with enhanced sprouting of new dendrites or dendrite branches. In contrast, high cell density or exposure of low-density cultures to NGF increased the Hes1/5 mRNA, reduced the number of primary dendrites and promoted dendrite elongation. The NGF effects on both Hes1/5 expression and dendrite morphology were prevented by p75-antibody (a p75(NTR)-blocking antibody) or transfection with enhancer-of-split 6 (Hes6), a condition known to suppress Hes activity. Nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB was identified as a link between p75(NTR) and Hes1/5 because it was required for the up-regulation of these two genes. The convergence of the Notch and p75(NTR) signaling pathways at the level of Hes1/5 illuminates an unexpected mechanism through which a diffusible factor (NGF) could regulate dendrite growth when cell-cell interaction via Notch is not in action

Selective regulation of axonal growth from developing hippocampal neurons by tumor necrosis factor superfamily member APRIL

APRIL (A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand, TNFSF13) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily that regulates lymphocyte survival and activation and has been implicated in tumorigenesis and autoimmune diseases. Here we report the expression and first known activity of APRIL in the nervous system. APRIL and one of its receptors, BCMA (B-Cell Maturation Antigen, TNFRSF17), are expressed by hippocampal pyramidal cells of fetal and postnatal mice. In culture, these neurons secreted APRIL, and function-blocking antibodies to either APRIL or BCMA reduced axonal elongation. Recombinant APRIL enhanced axonal elongation, but did not influence dendrite elongation. The effect of APRIL on axon elongation was inhibited by anti-BCMA and the expression of a signaling-defective BCMA mutant in these neurons, suggesting that the axon growth-promoting effect of APRIL is mediated by BCMA. APRIL promoted phosphorylation and activation of ERK1, ERK2 and Akt and serine phosphorylation and inactivation of GSK-3β in cultured hippocampal pyramidal cells. Inhibition of MEK1/MEK2 (activators of ERK1/ERK2), PI3-kinase (activator of Akt) or Akt inhibited the axon growth-promoting action of APRIL, as did pharmacological activation of GSK-3β and the expression of a constitutively active form of GSK-3β. These findings suggest that APRIL promotes axon elongation by a mechanism that depends both on ERK signaling and PI3-kinase/Akt/GSK-3β signaling

Growth differentiation factor 5 is a key physiological regulator of dendrite growth during development

Dendrite size and morphology are key determinants of the functional properties of neurons. Here, we show that growth differentiation factor 5 (GDF5), a member of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) subclass of the transforming growth factor β superfamily with a well-characterised role in limb morphogenesis, is a key regulator of the growth and elaboration of pyramidal cell dendrites in the developing hippocampus. Pyramidal cells co-express GDF5 and its preferred receptors, BMP receptor 1B and BMP receptor 2, during development. In culture, GDF5 substantially increased dendrite, but not axon, elongation from these neurons by a mechanism that depends on activation of SMADs 1/5/8 and upregulation of the transcription factor HES5. In vivo, the apical and basal dendritic arbours of pyramidal cells throughout the hippocampus were markedly stunted in both homozygous and heterozygous Gdf5 null mutants, indicating that dendrite size and complexity are exquisitely sensitive to the level of endogenous GDF5 synthesis

Activation of Casein Kinase II and Inhibition of Phosphatase and Tensin Homologue Deleted on Chromosome 10 Phosphatase by Nerve Growth Factor/p75(NTR) Inhibit Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β and Stimulate Axonal Growth

Axonal elongation and guidance are controlled by extracellular factors such as the neurotrophins. Indeed, nerve growth factor (NGF) seems to promote axon growth through binding to its p75(NTR) receptor and inactivating RhoA. Furthermore, the local inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β by NGF also favors microtubule polymerization and axon extension. Inactivation of GSK-3β may be due to the NGF/TrkA-mediated activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI-3 kinase), which increases the levels of phosphatydilinositol 3-phosphate [PI(3)P]. However, we show here that NGF may inactivate GSK-3β through an alternative mechanism. In cultured hippocampal neurons, the capacity of NGF to promote axon elongation is mostly mediated by p75(NTR), and the activation of this pathway leads to the inactivation of GSK-3β. However, the signaling pathway triggered by NGF/p75(NTR) acts through casein kinase II (CK2). NGF/p75(NTR)-activated CK2 phosphorylates the phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN), thus rendering this phosphatase inactive. Like activation of the PI-3 kinase, PTEN inactivation allows PI(3)P levels to increase, thus favoring GSK-3β inactivation and axon outgrowth. This newly disclosed mechanism may help to extend the repertoire of pharmacological agents that activate CK2 or that inhibit PTEN to stimulate axon regeneration after trauma or disease