Superfund, Hedonics, and the Scales of Environmental Justice

Environmental justice (EJ) is prominent in environmental policy, yet EJ research is plagued by debates over methodological procedures. A well-established economic approach, the hedonic price method, can offer guidance on one contentious aspect of EJ research: the choice of the spatial unit of analysis. Environmental managers charged with preventing or remedying inequities grapple with these framing problems. This article reviews the theoretical and empirical literature on unit choice in EJ, as well as research employing hedonic pricing to assess the spatial extent of hazardous waste site impacts. The insights from hedonics are demonstrated in a series of EJ analyses for a national inventory of Superfund sites. First, as evidence of injustice exhibits substantial sensitivity to the choice of spatial unit, hedonics suggests some units conform better to Superfund impacts than others. Second, hedonic estimates for a particular site can inform the design of appropriate tests of environmental inequity for that site. Implications for policymakers and practitioners of EJ analyses are discussed

Have State Renewable Portfolio Standards Really Worked? Synthesizing Past Policy Assessments to Build an Integrated Econometric Analysis of RPS effectiveness in the U.S.

Renewable portfolio standards (RPS) are the most popular U.S. state-level policies for promoting deployment of renewable electricity (RES-E). While several econometric studies have estimated the effect of RPS on in-state RES-E deployment, results are contradictory. We reconcile these studies and move toward a definitive answer to the question of RPS effectiveness. We conduct an analysis using time series cross sectional regressions - including the most nuanced controls for policy design features to date - and nonparametric matching analysis. We find that higher RPS stringency does not necessarily drive more RES-E deployment. We examine several RPS design features and market characteristics (including REC unbundling, RPS in neighboring states, out-of-state renewable energy purchases) that may explain the gap between effective and ineffective policies. We also investigate other RES-E policies and technology-specific effects. Ultimately, we show that RPS effectiveness is largely explained by a combination of policy design, market context, and inter-state trading effects

Beyond Environmental Regulatory Fragmentation: Signs of Integration in the Case of the Great Lakes Basin

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/72007/1/j.1468-0491.1995.tb00197.x.pd

The Cryo-EM Structure of a Complete 30S Translation Initiation Complex from Escherichia coli

Formation of the 30S initiation complex (30S IC) is an important checkpoint in regulation of gene expression. The selection of mRNA, correct start codon, and the initiator fMet-tRNAfMet requires the presence of three initiation factors (IF1, IF2, IF3) of which IF3 and IF1 control the fidelity of the process, while IF2 recruits fMet-tRNAfMet. Here we present a cryo-EM reconstruction of the complete 30S IC, containing mRNA, fMet-tRNAfMet, IF1, IF2, and IF3. In the 30S IC, IF2 contacts IF1, the 30S subunit shoulder, and the CCA end of fMet-tRNAfMet, which occupies a novel P/I position (P/I1). The N-terminal domain of IF3 contacts the tRNA, whereas the C-terminal domain is bound to the platform of the 30S subunit. Binding of initiation factors and fMet-tRNAfMet induces a rotation of the head relative to the body of the 30S subunit, which is likely to prevail through 50S subunit joining until GTP hydrolysis and dissociation of IF2 take place. The structure provides insights into the mechanism of mRNA selection during translation initiation

Institutionelle Arrangements und Formen der Handlungskoordination im Mehrebenensystem der USA

Das Verhältnis zwischen den Politikebenen im Mehrebenensystem der USA kann durch drei Typen charakterisiert werden: erstens die zentrale Regulierung, d.h. die hierarchische Koordination der Politikebenen. Zweitens die dezentrale Regulierung, die sowohl den regulativen Wettbewerb als auch die Entstehung horizontaler Verhandlungssysteme zwischen den Einzelstaaten umfasst. Beide Formen verlieren an Bedeutung, da sich stattdessen mehr und mehr ein dritter Typus, die Mehrebenenregulierung, durchsetzt. Dargestellt werden zwei Varianten dieser neuartigen institutionellen Arrangements, die den beiden anderen Typen der Regulierung überlegen sind: Zum einen wird der Wettbewerb zwischen den Politikebenen durch eine Kombination hierarchischer Elemente mit dem regulativen Wettbewerb zwischen den Einzelstaaten gefördert, z.B. durch die Festsetzung nationaler Mindeststandards. Zum anderen kann ein Wandel der intergouvernementalen Beziehungen beobachtet werden, der die Entstehung vertikaler Verhandlungssysteme zwischen dem Bund und den Einzelstaaten begünstigt. Die Entwicklung in den USA zeigt, dass bei der Kombination institutioneller Arrangements auf hierarchische Elemente kaum verzichtet werden kann. Außerdem kann man feststellen, dass dynamische Politikentwicklungen nicht nur aus dem regulativen Wettbewerb zwischen den Einzelstaaten, sondern auch aus dem Wettbewerb zwischen den Politikebenen resultieren können.The relationship between the policy levels in the U.S. multi-level system can be characterized by three types: first, central regulation, i.e. the hierarchical coordination of the policy levels. Second, decentral regulation comprising regulatory competition as well as the emergence of horizontal joint-decision systems between the states. Both forms lose importance as a third type, multi-level regulation, becomes prevalent. Two variants of these novel institutional arrangements that are superior to both other types of regulation, are described. On the one hand, competition between the policy levels is stimulated by a combination of hierarchical elements with the regulative competition between the states, e.g., by setting national minimum standards. On the other hand, a change of the intergovernmental relations between the federal government and the states can be observed, fostering the emergence of vertical joint-decision systems. The U.S. development shows that hierarchical elements are hardly dispensable when institutional arrangements are combined. Moreover, it can be seen that dynamic policy developments result not only from regulative competition between states but also from competition between policy levels

The use of directed evolution to create a stable and immunogenic recombinant BCG expressing a modified HIV-1 Gag antigen

Numerous features make Mycobacterium bovis BCG an attractive vaccine vector for HIV. It has a good safety profile, it elicits long-lasting cellular immune responses and in addition manufacturing costs are affordable. Despite these advantages it is often difficult to express viral antigens in BCG, which results in genetic instability and low immunogenicity. The aim of this study was to generate stable recombinant BCG (rBCG) that express high levels of HIV antigens, by modification of the HIV genes. A directed evolution process was applied to recombinant mycobacteria that expressed HIV-1 Gag fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP). Higher growth rates and increased GFP expression were selected for. Through this process a modified Gag antigen was selected. Recombinant BCG that expressed the modified Gag (BCG[pWB106] and BCG[pWB206]) were more stable, produced higher levels of antigen and grew faster than those that expressed the unmodified Gag (BCG[pWB105]). The recombinant BCG that expressed the modified HIV-1 Gag induced 2 to 3 fold higher levels of Gag-specific CD4 T cells than those expressing the unmodified Gag (BCG[pWB105]). Mice primed with 10 7 CFU BCG[pWB206] and then boosted with MVA-Gag developed Gag-specific CD8 T cells with a frequency of 1343±17 SFU/10 6 splenocytes, 16 fold greater than the response induced with MVA-Gag alone. Levels of Gag-specific CD4 T cells were approximately 5 fold higher in mice primed with BCG[pWB206] and boosted with MVA-Gag than in those receiving the MVA-Gag boost alone. In addition mice vaccinated with BCG[pWB206] were protected from a surrogate vaccinia virus challenge

Connecting the sustainable development goals by their energy inter-linkages

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide guide-posts to society as it attempts to respond to an array of pressing challenges. One of these challenges is energy; thus, the SDGs have become paramount for energy policy-making. Yet, while governments throughout the world have already declared the SDGs to be 'integrated and indivisible', there are still knowledge gaps surrounding how the interactions between the energy SDG targets and those of the non-energy-focused SDGs might play out in different contexts. In this review, we report on a large-scale assessment of the relevant energy literature, which we conducted to better our understanding of key energy-related interactions between SDGs, as well as their context-dependencies (relating to time, geography, governance, technology, and directionality). By (i) evaluating the nature and strength of the interactions identified, (ii) indicating the robustness of the evidence base, the agreement of that evidence, and our confidence in it, and (iii) highlighting critical areas where better understanding is needed or context dependencies should be considered, our review points to potential ways forward for both the policy making and scientific communities. First, we find that positive interactions between the SDGs outweigh the negative ones, both in number and magnitude. Second, of relevance for the scientific community, in order to fill knowledge gaps in critical areas, there is an urgent need for interdisciplinary research geared toward developing new data, scientific tools, and fresh perspectives. Third, of relevance for policy-making, wider efforts to promote policy coherence and integrated assessments are required to address potential policy spillovers across sectors, sustainability domains, and geographic and temporal boundaries. The task of conducting comprehensive science-to-policy assessments covering all SDGs, such as for the UN's Global Sustainable Development Report, remains manageable pending the availability of systematic reviews focusing on a limited number of SDG dimensions in each case