Competing with Whom? European Tax Competition, the “Great Fragmentation of the Firm,” and Varieties of FDI Attraction Profiles

International tax competition is generally framed as states competing for foreign direct investment (FDI), and analyses of the phenomenon draw heavily on FDI statistics. In and of themselves, however, FDI statistics are merely a quantification of the value of investment projects and tell us little about the heterogeneity of these projects and the distinct patterns of competitive dynamics between countries they generate. In this paper, we create a more sophisticated understanding of international tax competition by pointing out its variegated nature. To do so, we introduce the notion of the "great fragmentation of the firm" to distinguish between five categories of FDI: manufacturing affiliates, shared service centers, research and development facilities, intermediate holding companies, and top holding companies. Using a novel combination of firm-level and country-level data, we identify for each category of FDI which European Union member states are most successful in attracting it, what macro-institutional and tax arrangements they rely on for doing so, and what benefits they receive from it in terms of tax revenues and employment creation. In this way we were able to identify five distinct FDI attraction profiles and show that, rather than being a game of all against all, tax competition in the European Union increasingly takes place amongst subsets of countries that compete for similar categories of FDI.Der internationale Steuerwettbewerb wird üblicherweise als ein Wettbewerb zwischen Staaten um ausländische Direktinvestitionen (foreign direct investment, FDI) dargestellt. Analysen zu diesem Thema stützen sich weitgehend auf FDI-Statistiken, die jedoch ausschließlich den zahlenmäßigen Wert von Investitionsprojekten beschreiben. Sie besagen daher wenig über die Heterogenität dieser Projekte und die durch sie erzeugten distinkten Muster wettbewerblicher Dynamik zwischen Ländern. Mit diesem Papier möchten wir zu einem differenzierteren Verständnis des internationalen Steuerwettbewerbs beitragen, indem wir dessen vielfältige Erscheinungsformen aufzeigen. Hierzu führen wir den Begriff der „großen Fragmentierung des Unternehmens“ (great fragmentation) ein, um zwischen fünf FDI-Kategorien zu unterscheiden: Produktionsstandorte, Shared Service Centers, Forschungs- und Entwicklungszentren, Zwischenholdings und Dachholdings. Durch eine neuartige Kombination von Unternehmens- und Länderdaten ermitteln wir für jede dieser Kategorien, welche EU-Mitgliedstaaten am erfolgreichsten ausländische Direktinvestitionen darin anwerben, auf welche makroinstitutionellen und steuerlichen Arrangements sie sich hierbei stützen und welchen Nutzen im Hinblick auf Steuererträge und neu geschaffene Arbeitsplätze sie hieraus ziehen. Auf diese Weise können wir fünf verschiedene FDI-Attraktivitätsprofile erarbeiten und zeigen, dass der Steuerwettbewerb zwischen den Staaten der Europäischen Union nicht etwa ein Spiel ist, in dem alle gegen alle antreten, sondern dass er zunehmend zwischen Untergruppen von Staaten stattfindet, die in ähnlichen FDI-Kategorien miteinander konkurrieren.Contents 1 Introduction 2 The great fragmentation of the firm 3 The anatomy and geographical dispersion of corporate groups Manufacturing affiliates Shared service centers Research and development (R&D) facilities Top holding companies Intermediate holding companies 4 Analytical approach, data, and visualization Analytical approach Data Clustering analysis and visualization of the results 5 Results Manufacturing affiliates Shared service centers Research and development (R&D) facilities Top holding companies Intermediate holding companies Towards a typology of “FDI attraction profiles” 6 Conclusion Reference

Effect of two eccentric hamstring exercises on muscle architectural characteristics assessed with diffusion tensor MRI

Objectives To evaluate the effect of a Nordic hamstring exercise or Diver hamstring exercise intervention on biceps femoris long head, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscle's fascicle length and orientation through diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) with magnetic resonance imaging. Methods In this three-arm, single-center, randomized controlled trial, injury-free male basketball players were randomly assigned to a Nordic, Diver hamstring exercise intervention or control group. The primary outcome was the DTI-derived fascicle length and orientation of muscles over 12 weeks. Results Fifty-three participants were included for analysis (mean age 22 ± 7 years). Fascicle length in the semitendinosus over 12 weeks significantly increased in the Nordic-group (mean [M]: 20.8 mm, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 7.8 to 33.8) compared with the Control-group (M: 0.9 mm, 95% CI: −7.1 to 8.9), mean between-groups difference: 19.9 mm, 95% CI: 1.9 to 37.9, p = 0.026. Fascicle orientation in the biceps femoris long head over 12 weeks significantly decreased in the Diver-group (mean: -2.6°, 95% CI: −4.1 to −1.0) compared with the Control-group (mean: −0.2°, 95% CI: −1.4 to 1.0), mean between-groups difference: -2.4°, 95% CI: −4.7 to −0.1, p = 0.039. Conclusion The Nordic hamstring exercise intervention did significantly increase the fascicle length of the semitendinosus and the Diver hamstring exercise intervention did significantly change the orientation of fascicles of the biceps femoris long head. As both exercises are complementary to each other, the combination is relevant for preventing hamstring injuries

Accuracy of magnetic resonance studies in the detection of chondral and labral lesions in femoroacetabular impingement : systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Several types of Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are commonly used in imaging of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI), however till now there are no clear protocols and recommendations for each type. The aim of this meta-analysis is to detect the accuracy of conventional magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI), direct magnetic resonance arthrography (dMRA) and indirect magnetic resonance arthrography (iMRA) in the diagnosis of chondral and labral lesions in femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Methods: A literature search was finalized on the 17th of May 2016 to collect all studies identifying the accuracy of cMRI, dMRA and iMRA in diagnosing chondral and labral lesions associated with FAI using surgical results (arthroscopic or open) as a reference test. Pooled sensitivity and specificity with 95% confidence intervals using a random-effects meta-analysis for MRI, dMRA and iMRA were calculated also area under receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) was retrieved whenever possible where AUC is equivocal to diagnostic accuracy. Results: The search yielded 192 publications which were reviewed according inclusion and exclusion criteria then 21 studies fulfilled the eligibility criteria for the qualitative analysis with a total number of 828 cases, lastly 12 studies were included in the quantitative meta-analysis. Meta-analysis showed that as regard labral lesions the pooled sensitivity, specificity and AUC for cMRI were 0.864, 0.833 and 0.88 and for dMRA were 0.91, 0.58 and 0.92. While in chondral lesions the pooled sensitivity, specificity and AUC for cMRI were 0.76, 0.72 and 0.75 and for dMRA were 0.75, 0.79 and 0.83, while for iMRA were sensitivity of 0.722 and specificity of 0.917. Conclusions: The present meta-analysis showed that the diagnostic test accuracy was superior for dMRA when compared with cMRI for detection of labral and chondral lesions. The diagnostic test accuracy was superior for labral lesions when compared with chondral lesions in both cMRI and dMRA. Promising results are obtained concerning iMRA but further studies still needed to fully assess its diagnostic accuracy

Can a Clinical Examination Demonstrate Intramuscular Tendon Involvement in Acute Hamstring Injuries?

Background: Involvement of the intramuscular (central) tendon in acute hamstring injuries, as detected on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may prolong recovery times. To date, it is unclear whether hamstring injuries exhibiting intramuscular tendon involvement can be identified though routine clinical examinations that assess flexibility and strength. Purpose: To test whether MRI-detected intramuscular tendon involvement could be identified by a clinical assessment of muscle strength and flexibility. Study Design: Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Participants were drawn from a multicenter randomized controlled trial on the effect of platelet-rich plasma in acute hamstring injuries. Clinical parameters assessed within 5 days of injury were active knee extension and passive straight-leg raise for hamstring flexibility and isometric knee flexion force with 15° and 90° of knee flexion. Also, 1.5-T MRI of the thigh was performed within 5 days of injury and was evaluated for the presence of different types of intramuscular tendon involvement. One-way analysis of variance was used to determine whether clinical parameters could discriminate injuries with intramuscular tendon involvement from those without such involvement. Results: A total of 74 acute hamstring injuries were included, with 52 (70.3%) injuries affecting the myotendinous junction. Injuries exhibiting intramuscular tendon discontinuity on MRI had an increased mean absolute flexibility deficit for active knee extension (20.4° ± 14.9° vs 10.7° ± 9.0°, respectively; P = .006) and decreased mean strength at 15° (62.2 ± 26.7 N vs 76.6 ± 22.5 N, respectively; P = .05) compared with injuries without intramuscular tendon discontinuity. Flexibility and strength showed major overlap and variance among injuries with and without intramuscular tendon involvement. Conclusion: Hamstring flexibility and strength cannot be used to discriminate the presence of intramuscular tendon involvement

The value of MRI STIR signal intensity on return to play prognosis and reinjury risk estimation in athletes with acute hamstring injuries

Objectives: Previous studies have shown low to moderate evidence for a variety of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features as prognostic factors in athletes with hamstring injuries. Short-tau inversion recovery (STIR) signal intensity has not yet been investigated for assessing the prognosis of acute muscle injuries. Our aim was to explore the relationship between MRI STIR signal intensity and time to return to play (RTP) and to investigate the association between MRI STIR and reinjury risk in athletes with acute hamstring injuri

Whole genome sequencing for USH2A-associated disease reveals several pathogenic deep-intronic variants that are amenable to splice correction

A significant number of individuals with a rare disorder such as Usher syndrome (USH) and (non-)syndromic autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP) remain genetically unexplained. Therefore, we assessed subjects suspected of USH2A-associated disease and no or mono-allelic USH2A variants using whole genome sequencing (WGS) followed by an improved pipeline for variant interpretation to provide a conclusive diagnosis. One hundred subjects were screened using WGS to identify causative variants in USH2A or other USH/arRP-associated genes. In addition to the existing variant interpretation pipeline, a particular focus was put on assessing splice-affecting properties of variants, both in silico and in vitro. Also structural variants were extensively addressed. For variants resulting in pseudoexon inclusion, we designed and evaluated antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) using minigene splice assays and patient-derived photoreceptor precursor cells. Biallelic variants were identified in 49 of 100 subjects, including novel splice-affecting variants and structural variants, in USH2A or arRP/USH-associated genes. Thirteen variants were shown to affect USH2A pre-mRNA splicing, including four deep-intronic USH2A variants resulting in pseudoexon inclusion, which could be corrected upon AON treatment. We have shown that WGS, combined with a thorough variant interpretation pipeline focused on assessing pre-mRNA splicing defects and structural variants, is a powerful method to provide subjects with a rare genetic condition, a (likely) conclusive genetic diagnosis. This is essential for the development of future personalized treatments and for patients to be eligible for such treatments

Cost-effective sequence analysis of 113 genes in 1,192 probands with retinitis pigmentosa and Leber congenital amaurosis

Introduction: Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) are two groups of inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) where the rod photoreceptors degenerate followed by the cone photoreceptors of the retina. A genetic diagnosis for IRDs is challenging since >280 genes are associated with these conditions. While whole exome sequencing (WES) is commonly used by diagnostic facilities, the costs and required infrastructure prevent its global applicability. Previous studies have shown the cost-effectiveness of sequence analysis using single molecule Molecular Inversion Probes (smMIPs) in a cohort of patients diagnosed with Stargardt disease and other maculopathies. Methods: Here, we introduce a smMIPs panel that targets the exons and splice sites of all currently known genes associated with RP and LCA, the entire RPE65 gene, known causative deep-intronic variants leading to pseudo-exons, and part of the RP17 region associated with autosomal dominant RP, by using a total of 16,812 smMIPs. The RP-LCA smMIPs panel was used to screen 1,192 probands from an international cohort of predominantly RP and LCA cases. Results and discussion: After genetic analysis, a diagnostic yield of 56% was obtained which is on par with results from WES analysis. The effectiveness and the reduced costs compared to WES renders the RP-LCA smMIPs panel a competitive approach to provide IRD patients with a genetic diagnosis, especially in countries with restricted access to genetic testing.This study received funding from Novartis. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication. This work was supported by grants from Foundation Fighting Blindness Career Development Award CDGE-0621-0809-RAD (SR), Foundation Fighting Blindness project program award PPA-0123-0841-UCL (SR and SdB), Retinitis Pigmentosa Fighting Blindness, Fight for Sight UK (RP Genome Project GR586), Ghent University Special Research Fund (BOF20/GOA/023) (EDB and BL); EJP RD Solve-RET EJPRD19-234 (EDB, BL, SB, CR, FC, and SR). EDB (1802220N) and BL (1803816N) are FWO Senior Clinical Investigators of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO). EDB, BL, SB, FC, and SR are members of ERN-EYE (Framework Partnership Agreement No. 739534)

Whole genome sequencing for USH2A-associated disease reveals several pathogenic deep-intronic variants that are amenable to splice correction

A significant number of individuals with a rare disorder such as Usher syndrome (USH) and (non-)syndromic autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP) remain genetically unexplained. Therefore, we assessed subjects suspected of USH2A-associated disease and no or mono-allelic USH2A variants using whole genome sequencing (WGS) followed by an improved pipeline for variant interpretation to provide a conclusive diagnosis. One hundred subjects were screened using WGS to identify causative variants in USH2A or other USH/arRP-associated genes. In addition to the existing variant interpretation pipeline, a particular focus was put on assessing splice-affecting properties of variants, both in silico and in vitro. Also structural variants were extensively addressed. For variants resulting in pseudoexon inclusion, we designed and evaluated antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) using minigene splice assays and patient-derived photoreceptor precursor cells. Biallelic variants were identified in 49 of 100 subjects, including novel splice-affecting variants and structural variants, in USH2A or arRP/USH-associated genes. Thirteen variants were shown to affect USH2A pre-mRNA splicing, including four deep-intronic USH2A variants resulting in pseudoexon inclusion, which could be corrected upon AON treatment. We have shown that WGS, combined with a thorough variant interpretation pipeline focused on assessing pre-mRNA splicing defects and structural variants, is a powerful method to provide subjects with a rare genetic condition, a (likely) conclusive genetic diagnosis. This is essential for the development of future personalized treatments and for patients to be eligible for such treatments.</p

Cost-effective sequence analysis of 113 genes in 1,192 probands with retinitis pigmentosa and Leber congenital amaurosis

Introduction: Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) are two groups of inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) where the rod photoreceptors degenerate followed by the cone photoreceptors of the retina. A genetic diagnosis for IRDs is challenging since &gt;280 genes are associated with these conditions. While whole exome sequencing (WES) is commonly used by diagnostic facilities, the costs and required infrastructure prevent its global applicability. Previous studies have shown the cost-effectiveness of sequence analysis using single molecule Molecular Inversion Probes (smMIPs) in a cohort of patients diagnosed with Stargardt disease and other maculopathies. Methods: Here, we introduce a smMIPs panel that targets the exons and splice sites of all currently known genes associated with RP and LCA, the entire RPE65 gene, known causative deep-intronic variants leading to pseudo-exons, and part of the RP17 region associated with autosomal dominant RP, by using a total of 16,812 smMIPs. The RP-LCA smMIPs panel was used to screen 1,192 probands from an international cohort of predominantly RP and LCA cases. Results and discussion: After genetic analysis, a diagnostic yield of 56% was obtained which is on par with results from WES analysis. The effectiveness and the reduced costs compared to WES renders the RP-LCA smMIPs panel a competitive approach to provide IRD patients with a genetic diagnosis, especially in countries with restricted access to genetic testing.</p

Biallelic variants in coenzyme Q10 biosynthesis pathway genes cause a retinitis pigmentosa phenotype

The aim of this study was to investigate coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) biosynthesis pathway defects in inherited retinal dystrophy. Individuals affected by inherited retinal dystrophy (IRD) underwent exome or genome sequencing for molecular diagnosis of their condition. Following negative IRD gene panel analysis, patients carrying biallelic variants in CoQ10 biosynthesis pathway genes were identified. Clinical data were collected from the medical records. Haplotypes harbouring the same missense variant were characterised from family genome sequencing (GS) data and direct Sanger sequencing. Candidate splice variants were characterised using Oxford Nanopore Technologies single molecule sequencing. The CoQ10 status of the human plasma was determined in some of the study patients. 13 individuals from 12 unrelated families harboured candidate pathogenic genotypes in the genes: PDSS1, COQ2, COQ4 and COQ5. The PDSS1 variant c.589 A > G was identified in three affected individuals from three unrelated families on a possible ancestral haplotype. Three variants (PDSS1 c.468-25 A > G, PDSS1 c.722-2 A > G, COQ5 c.682-7 T > G) were shown to lead to cryptic splicing. 6 affected individuals were diagnosed with non-syndromic retinitis pigmentosa and 7 had additional clinical findings. This study provides evidence of CoQ10 biosynthesis pathway gene defects leading to non-syndromic retinitis pigmentosa in some cases. Intronic variants outside of the canonical splice-sites represent an important cause of disease. RT-PCR nanopore sequencing is effective in characterising these splice defects