Evolution of haploid–diploid life cycles when haploid and diploid fitnesses are not equal

Many organisms spend a significant portion of their life cycle as haploids and as diploids (a haploid–diploid life cycle). However, the evolutionary processes that could maintain this sort of life cycle are unclear. Most previous models of ploidy evolution have assumed that the fitness effects of new mutations are equal in haploids and homozygous diploids, however, this equivalency is not supported by empirical data. With different mutational effects, the overall (intrinsic) fitness of a haploid would not be equal to that of a diploid after a series of substitution events. Intrinsic fitness differences between haploids and diploids can also arise directly, for example because diploids tend to have larger cell sizes than haploids. Here, we incorporate intrinsic fitness differences into genetic models for the evolution of time spent in the haploid versus diploid phases, in which ploidy affects whether new mutations are masked. Life-cycle evolution can be affected by intrinsic fitness differences between phases, the masking of mutations, or a combination of both. We find parameter ranges where these two selective forces act and show that the balance between them can favor convergence on a haploid–diploid life cycle, which is not observed in the absence of intrinsic fitness differences

Evolution of life cycles : modelling and experimental evolution using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

La reproduction sexuée conduit à l'alternance d'une phase haploïde et d'une phase diploïde, dont la durée relative est très variable entre taxons. La proportion du cycle de vie passée en phase haploïde et en phase diploïde a d'importantes conséquences sur de nombreux processus adaptatifs. Cette thèse combine des approches théoriques qui explorent l'effet de facteurs génétiques et écologiques sur l'évolution des cycles de vie, et un travail expérimental sur l'effet de la ploidy sur l'évolution de l'isolement reproducteur entre populations. La partie théorique a consisté à intégrer des composantes écologiques dans des modèles génétiques pour l'évolution des cycles de vie. En particulier, j'ai exploré l'interaction entre la différenciation de niche entre haploïdes et diploïdes (qui favorise le maintien de cycles biphasiques, impliquant le développement des deux phases) et l'effet d'allèles délétères (qui favorisent soit l'haploïdie, soit la diploïdie). Tandis que la différentiation de niche (ou plus simplement, une différence de valeur sélective intrinsèque entre phases) stabilise les cycles intermédiaires, la présence d'allèles délétères conduit souvent à un branchement évolutif, avec la coexistence stable d'allèles codant pour l'haploïdie et la diploïdie. Cependant, des fluctuations temporelles de l'habitat permettent d'empêcher ce branchement et de stabiliser les cycles biphasiques. La partie expérimentale a consisté à comparer la dynamique de l'isolement reproducteur entre petites populations de levure haploïdes et de diploïdes avec de taux de mutations élevés. Les résultats montrent que tandis que les hybrides haploïdes ont une valeur sélective plus faible que leurs parents, les hybrides diploïdes bénéficient du phénomène d'hétérosis en génération F1, et ont encore une valeur sélective plus élevée que leurs parents en génération F2. La variance de la valeur sélective des hybrides était cependant beaucoup plus élevée chez les haploïdes, avec la production de certains génotypes très performants.Sexual reproduction leads to an alternation between haploid and diploid phases, whose relative length varies widely across taxa. The proportion of the life cycle spent in the haploid and diploid phase has important consequences on a number of adaptive processes. This thesis combines theoretical approaches exploring the effect of genetic and ecological factors on the evolution of life cycles, and experimental work on the effects of ploidy on the evolution of reproductive isolation between populations. The theoretical part consisted in integrating ecological components into genetic models for the evolution of life cycles. In particular, I explored the interplay between niche differentiation between haploids and diploids (known to favour the maintenance of biphasic life cycles, involving development in both phases) and the effect of deleterious alleles (known to favour either haploid or diploid life cycles). While niche differentiation (or more simply intrinsic fitness differences between phases) stabilizes biphasic cycles, the presence of deleterious alleles often lead to evolutionary branching and to the stable coexistence of alleles coding for haploid and diploid cycles. Branching is prevented, however, when temporal environmental fluctuations are included into the model. The experimental part consisted in comparing the dynamics of reproductive isolation between small populations of haploid and diploid yeasts with elevated mutation rate. The results show that while haploid hybrids tend to have a lower fitness than their parents, diploid hybrids benefit from heterosis in the F1 generation, and still have a higher fitness than the diploid homozygous parents in the F2 generation. However, the variance of hybrid fitness was much higher in haploids, with the production of some highly fit genotypes

Evolution des cycles de vie : modélisation et évolution expérimentale sur la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Sexual reproduction leads to an alternation between haploid and diploid phases, whose relative length varies widely across taxa. The proportion of the life cycle spent in the haploid and diploid phase has important consequences on a number of adaptive processes. This thesis combines theoretical approaches exploring the effect of genetic and ecological factors on the evolution of life cycles, and experimental work on the effects of ploidy on the evolution of reproductive isolation between populations. The theoretical part consisted in integrating ecological components into genetic models for the evolution of life cycles. In particular, I explored the interplay between niche differentiation between haploids and diploids (known to favour the maintenance of biphasic life cycles, involving development in both phases) and the effect of deleterious alleles (known to favour either haploid or diploid life cycles). While niche differentiation (or more simply intrinsic fitness differences between phases) stabilizes biphasic cycles, the presence of deleterious alleles often lead to evolutionary branching and to the stable coexistence of alleles coding for haploid and diploid cycles. Branching is prevented, however, when temporal environmental fluctuations are included into the model. The experimental part consisted in comparing the dynamics of reproductive isolation between small populations of haploid and diploid yeasts with elevated mutation rate. The results show that while haploid hybrids tend to have a lower fitness than their parents, diploid hybrids benefit from heterosis in the F1 generation, and still have a higher fitness than the diploid homozygous parents in the F2 generation. However, the variance of hybrid fitness was much higher in haploids, with the production of some highly fit genotypes.La reproduction sexuée conduit à l'alternance d'une phase haploïde et d'une phase diploïde, dont la durée relative est très variable entre taxons. La proportion du cycle de vie passée en phase haploïde et en phase diploïde a d'importantes conséquences sur de nombreux processus adaptatifs. Cette thèse combine des approches théoriques qui explorent l'effet de facteurs génétiques et écologiques sur l'évolution des cycles de vie, et un travail expérimental sur l'effet de la ploidy sur l'évolution de l'isolement reproducteur entre populations. La partie théorique a consisté à intégrer des composantes écologiques dans des modèles génétiques pour l'évolution des cycles de vie. En particulier, j'ai exploré l'interaction entre la différenciation de niche entre haploïdes et diploïdes (qui favorise le maintien de cycles biphasiques, impliquant le développement des deux phases) et l'effet d'allèles délétères (qui favorisent soit l'haploïdie, soit la diploïdie). Tandis que la différentiation de niche (ou plus simplement, une différence de valeur sélective intrinsèque entre phases) stabilise les cycles intermédiaires, la présence d'allèles délétères conduit souvent à un branchement évolutif, avec la coexistence stable d'allèles codant pour l'haploïdie et la diploïdie. Cependant, des fluctuations temporelles de l'habitat permettent d'empêcher ce branchement et de stabiliser les cycles biphasiques. La partie expérimentale a consisté à comparer la dynamique de l'isolement reproducteur entre petites populations de levure haploïdes et de diploïdes avec de taux de mutations élevés. Les résultats montrent que tandis que les hybrides haploïdes ont une valeur sélective plus faible que leurs parents, les hybrides diploïdes bénéficient du phénomène d'hétérosis en génération F1, et ont encore une valeur sélective plus élevée que leurs parents en génération F2. La variance de la valeur sélective des hybrides était cependant beaucoup plus élevée chez les haploïdes, avec la production de certains génotypes très performants

Data from: Evolution of haploid–diploid life cycles when haploid and diploid fitnesses are not equal

Many organisms spend a significant portion of their life cycle as haploids and as diploids (a haploid–diploid life cycle). However, the evolutionary processes that could maintain this sort of life cycle are unclear. Most previous models of ploidy evolution have assumed that the fitness effects of new mutations are equal in haploids and homozygous diploids, however, this equivalency is not supported by empirical data. With different mutational effects, the overall (intrinsic) fitness of a haploid would not be equal to that of a diploid after a series of substitution events. Intrinsic fitness differences between haploids and diploids can also arise directly, for example because diploids tend to have larger cell sizes than haploids. Here, we incorporate intrinsic fitness differences into genetic models for the evolution of time spent in the haploid versus diploid phases, in which ploidy affects whether new mutations are masked. Life-cycle evolution can be affected by intrinsic fitness differences between phases, the masking of mutations, or a combination of both. We find parameter ranges where these two selective forces act and show that the balance between them can favor convergence on a haploid–diploid life cycle, which is not observed in the absence of intrinsic fitness differences

Differential expression of two nonallelic MyoD genes in developing and adult myotomal musculature of the trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

International audiencePreviously we identified two nonallelic MyoD encoding genes in the rainbow trout. These two MyoD genes (TMyoD and TMyoD2) were duplicated during the tetraploidization of the salmonid genome. In this study we show that TMyoD and TMyoD2 exhibit a distinct spa tiotemporal pattern of expression that defines discrete cell populations in the developing somite. TMyoD expression is first detected in the mid-gastrula on either side of the elongating embryonic shield. During the anterior-to-posterior wave of somite formation the TMyoD transcript is initially present in adaxial cells of both the presomitic mesoderm and the forming somites. A lateral extension of TMyoD expression occurs only when the myotomes acquire their characteristic chevron shape pointing rostrally. By contrast, the initial expression of TMyoD2 occurs in somites that have already formed and is limited to the posterior compartment of somites. Further, in postlarval trout we observed a differential expression of TMyoD and TMyoD2 genes in muscle fibers with differing phenotype. Collectively, these data provide evidence that the two trout MyoD encoding genes have evolved to become functionally different. A comparison of the expression patterns of the two trout MyoD genes with that of myogenin allowed us to position them in the regulatory pathway leading to muscle differentiation

C++ code for the evolution of life cycle in a alternation model

The program simulates the evolution of the relative length of the haploid and diploid phase in a haploid-diploid population subjected to deleterious mutations

Interactions between Genetic and Ecological Effects on the Evolution of Life Cycles

International audienc

Reduced phenotypic plasticity evolves in less predictable environments

International audienc

C++ code for simulations of the evolution of life cycles.

The program simulates a haploid-diploid population under density-dependent control (logarithmic growth

Phenotypic memory drives population growth and extinction risk in a noisy environment

International audience6 7 Random environmental fluctuations pose major threats to wild populations. As patterns of 8 environmental noise are themselves altered by global change, there is growing need to identify 9 general mechanisms underlying their effects on population dynamics. This notably requires 10 understanding and predicting population responses to the color of environmental noise, i.e. its 11 temporal autocorrelation pattern. Here, we show experimentally that environmental 12 autocorrelation has a large influence on population dynamics and extinction rates, which can be 13 predicted accurately provided that a memory of past environment is accounted for. We exposed 14 near to 1000 lines of the microalgae Dunaliella salina to randomly fluctuating salinity, with 15 autocorrelation ranging from negative to highly positive. We found lower population growth, 16 and twice as many extinctions, under lower autocorrelation. These responses closely matched 17 predictions based on a tolerance curve with environmental memory, showing that non-genetic 18 inheritance can be a major driver of population dynamics in randomly fluctuating 19 environments. 20 2