The Desotamide Family of Antibiotics

Microbial natural products underpin the majority of antimicrobial compounds in clinical use and the discovery of new effective antibacterial treatments is urgently required to combat growing antimicrobial resistance. Non-ribosomal peptides are a major class of natural products to which many notable antibiotics belong. Recently, a new family of non-ribosomal peptide antibiotics were discovered—the desotamide family. The desotamide family consists of desotamide, wollamide, surugamide, ulleungmycin and noursamycin/curacomycin, which are cyclic peptides ranging in size between six and ten amino acids in length. Their biosynthesis has attracted significant attention because their highly functionalised scaffolds are cyclised by a recently identified standalone cyclase. Here, we provide a concise review of the desotamide family of antibiotics with an emphasis on their biosynthesis

The regulation and biosynthesis of antimycins

Antimycins (>40 members) were discovered nearly 65 years ago but the discovery of the gene cluster encoding antimycin biosynthesis in 2011 has facilitated rapid progress in understanding the unusual biosynthetic pathway. Antimycin A is widely used as a piscicide in the catfish farming industry and also has potent killing activity against insects, nematodes and fungi. The mode of action of antimycins is to inhibit cytochrome c reductase in the electron transport chain and halt respiration. However, more recently, antimycin A has attracted attention as a potent and selective inhibitor of the mitochondrial anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Remarkably, this inhibition is independent of the main mode of action of antimycins such that an artificial derivative named 2-methoxyantimycin A inhibits Bcl-xL but does not inhibit respiration. The Bcl-2/Bcl-xL family of proteins are overproduced in cancer cells that are resistant to apoptosis-inducing chemotherapy agents, so antimycins have great potential as anticancer drugs used in combination with existing chemotherapeutics. Here we review what is known about antimycins, the regulation of the ant gene cluster and the unusual biosynthetic pathway

Regulation of Antimycin Biosynthesis Is Controlled by the ClpXP Protease

The survival of any microbe relies on its ability to respond to environmental change. Use of extracytoplasmic function (ECF) RNA polymerase sigma (σ) factors is a major strategy enabling dynamic responses to extracellular signals. Streptomyces species harbor a large number of ECF σ factors, nearly all of which are uncharacterized, but those that have been characterized generally regulate genes required for morphological differentiation and/or response to environmental stress, except for σAntA, which regulates starter-unit biosynthesis in the production of antimycin, an anticancer compound. Unlike a canonical ECF σ factor, whose activity is regulated by a cognate anti-σ factor, σAntA is an orphan, raising intriguing questions about how its activity may be controlled. Here, we reconstituted in vitro ClpXP proteolysis of σAntA but not of a variant lacking a C-terminal di-alanine motif. Furthermore, we show that the abundance of σAntA in vivo was enhanced by removal of the ClpXP recognition sequence and that levels of the protein rose when cellular ClpXP protease activity was abolished. These data establish direct proteolysis as an alternative and, thus far, unique control strategy for an ECF RNA polymerase σ factor and expands the paradigmatic understanding of microbial signal transduction regulation

A trans-acting cyclase off-loading strategy for non-ribosomal peptide synthetases

The terminal step in the biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides is the hydrolytic release and, frequently, macrocyclization of an aminoacyl-S-thioester by an embedded thioesterase. The surugamide biosynthetic pathway is composed of two nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) assembly lines in which one produces surugamide A, which is a cyclic octapeptide, and the other produces surugamide F, a linear decapeptide. The terminal module of each system lacks an embedded thioesterase, which led us to question how the peptides are released from the assembly line (and cyclized in the case of surugamide A). We characterized a cyclase belonging to the β-lactamase superfamily in vivo, established that it is a trans-acting release factor for both compounds, and verified this functionality in vitro with a thioester mimic of linear surugamide A. Using bioinformatics, we estimate that ∼11% of filamentous Actinobacteria harbor an NRPS system lacking an embedded thioesterase and instead employ a trans-acting cyclase. This study improves the paradigmatic understanding of how nonribosomal peptides are released from the terminal peptidyl carrier protein and adds a new dimension to the synthetic biology toolkit

A standalone β-ketoreductase acts concomitantly with biosynthesis of the antimycin scaffold

Antimycins are anticancer compounds produced by a hybrid nonribosomal peptide synthetase/polyketide synthase (NRPS/PKS) pathway. The biosynthesis of these compounds is well characterized, with the exception of the standalone β-ketoreductase enzyme AntM that is proposed to catalyze the reduction of the C8 carbonyl of the antimycin scaffold. Inactivation of antM and structural characterization suggested that rather than functioning as a post-PKS tailoring enzyme, AntM acts upon the terminal biosynthetic intermediate while it is tethered to the PKS acyl carrier protein. Mutational analysis identified two amino acid residues (Tyr185 and Phe223) that are proposed to serve as checkpoints controlling substrate access to the AntM active site. Aromatic checkpoint residues are conserved in uncharacterized standalone β-ketoreductases, indicating that they may also act concomitantly with synthesis of the scaffold. These data provide novel mechanistic insights into the functionality of standalone β-ketoreductases and will enable their reprogramming for combinatorial biosynthesis

Mammalian cell entry genes in Streptomyces may provide clues to the evolution of bacterial virulence

Understanding the evolution of virulence is key to appreciating the role specific loci play in pathogenicity. Streptomyces species are generally non-pathogenic soil saprophytes, yet within their genome we can find homologues of virulence loci. One example of this is the mammalian cell entry (mce) locus, which has been characterised in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To investigate the role in Streptomyces we deleted the mce locus and studied its impact on cell survival, morphology and interaction with other soil organisms. Disruption of the mce cluster resulted in virulence towards amoebae (Acanthamoeba polyphaga) and reduced colonization of plant (Arabidopsis) models, indicating these genes may play an important role in Streptomyces survival in the environment. Our data suggest that loss of mce in Streptomyces spp. may have profound effects on survival in a competitive soil environment, and provides insight in to the evolution and selection of these genes as virulence factors in related pathogenic organisms

Strain-level diversity of secondary metabolism in Streptomyces albus

Streptomyces spp. are robust producers of medicinally-, industrially- and agriculturally-important small molecules. Increased resistance to antibacterial agents and the lack of new antibiotics in the pipeline have led to a renaissance in natural product discovery. This endeavor has benefited from inexpensive high quality DNA sequencing technology, which has generated more than 140 genome sequences for taxonomic type strains and environmental Streptomyces spp. isolates. Many of the sequenced streptomycetes belong to the same species. For instance, Streptomyces albus has been isolated from diverse environmental niches and seven strains have been sequenced, consequently this species has been sequenced more than any other streptomycete, allowing valuable analyses of strain-level diversity in secondary metabolism. Bioinformatics analyses identified a total of 48 unique biosynthetic gene clusters harboured by Streptomyces albus strains. Eighteen of these gene clusters specify the core secondary metabolome of the species. Fourteen of the gene clusters are contained by one or more strain and are considered auxiliary, while 16 of the gene clusters encode the production of putative strain-specific secondary metabolites. Analysis of Streptomyces albus strains suggests that each strain of a Streptomyces species likely harbours at least one strain-specific biosynthetic gene cluster. Importantly, this implies that deep sequencing of a species will not exhaust gene cluster diversity and will continue to yield novelty