Species distributions models may predict accurately future distributions but poorly how distributions change : A critical perspective on model validation

Aim: Species distribution models (SDMs) are widely used to make predictions on how species distributions may change as a response to climatic change. To assess the reliability of those predictions, they need to be critically validated with respect to what they are used for. While ecologists are typically interested in how and where distributions will change, we argue that SDMs have seldom been evaluated in terms of their capacity to predict such change. Instead, typical retrospective validation methods estimate model's ability to predict to only one static time in future. Here, we apply two validation methods, one that predicts and evaluates a static pattern, while the other measures change and compare their estimates of predictive performance. Location: Fennoscandia.Methods: We applied a joint SDM to model the distributions of 120 bird species in four model validation settings. We trained models with a dataset from 1975 to 1999 and predicted species' future occurrence and abundance in two ways: for one static time period (2013- 2016, "static validation') and for a change between two time periods (difference between 1996- 1999 and 2013- 2016, "change validation'). We then measured predictive performance using correlation between predicted and observed values. We also related predictive performance to species traits. Results: Even though static validation method evaluated predictive performance as good, change method indicated very poor performance. Predictive performance was not strongly related to any trait.Main Conclusions: Static validation method might overestimate predictive performance by not revealing the model's inability to predict change events. If species' distributions remain mostly stable, then even an unfit model can predict the near future well due to temporal autocorrelation. We urge caution when working with forecasts of changes in spatial patterns of species occupancy or abundance, even for SDMs that are based on time series datasets unless they are critically validated for forecasting such change.Peer reviewe

Decomposing the spatial and temporal effects of climate on bird populations in northern European mountains

The relationships between species abundance or occurrence versus spatial variation in climate are commonly used in species distribution models to forecast future distributions. Under "space-for-time substitution", the effects of climate variation on species are assumed to be equivalent in both space and time. Two unresolved issues of space-for-time substitution are the time period for species' responses and also the relative contributions of rapid- versus slow reactions in shaping spatial and temporal responses to climate change. To test the assumption of equivalence, we used a new approach of climate decomposition to separate variation in temperature and precipitation in Fennoscandia into spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal components over a 23-year period (1996-2018). We compiled information on land cover, topography, and six components of climate for 1756 fixed route surveys, and we modeled annual counts of 39 bird species breeding in the mountains of Fennoscandia. Local abundance of breeding birds was associated with the spatial components of climate as expected, but the temporal and spatiotemporal climatic variation from the current and previous breeding seasons were also important. The directions of the effects of the three climate components differed within and among species, suggesting that species can respond both rapidly and slowly to climate variation and that the responses represent different ecological processes. Thus, the assumption of equivalent species' response to spatial and temporal variation in climate was seldom met in our study system. Consequently, for the majority of our species, space-for-time substitution may only be applicable once the slow species' responses to a changing climate have occurred, whereas forecasts for the near future need to accommodate the temporal components of climate variation. However, appropriate forecast horizons for space-for-time substitution are rarely considered and may be difficult to reliably identify. Accurately predicting change is challenging because multiple ecological processes affect species distributions at different temporal scales

Decomposing the spatial and temporal effects of climate on bird populations in northern European mountains

The relationships between species abundance or occurrence versus spatial variation in climate are commonly used in species distribution models to forecast future distributions. Under "space-for-time substitution", the effects of climate variation on species are assumed to be equivalent in both space and time. Two unresolved issues of space-for-time substitution are the time period for species' responses and also the relative contributions of rapid- versus slow reactions in shaping spatial and temporal responses to climate change. To test the assumption of equivalence, we used a new approach of climate decomposition to separate variation in temperature and precipitation in Fennoscandia into spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal components over a 23-year period (1996-2018). We compiled information on land cover, topography, and six components of climate for 1756 fixed route surveys, and we modeled annual counts of 39 bird species breeding in the mountains of Fennoscandia. Local abundance of breeding birds was associated with the spatial components of climate as expected, but the temporal and spatiotemporal climatic variation from the current and previous breeding seasons were also important. The directions of the effects of the three climate components differed within and among species, suggesting that species can respond both rapidly and slowly to climate variation and that the responses represent different ecological processes. Thus, the assumption of equivalent species' response to spatial and temporal variation in climate was seldom met in our study system. Consequently, for the majority of our species, space-for-time substitution may only be applicable once the slow species' responses to a changing climate have occurred, whereas forecasts for the near future need to accommodate the temporal components of climate variation. However, appropriate forecast horizons for space-for-time substitution are rarely considered and may be difficult to reliably identify. Accurately predicting change is challenging because multiple ecological processes affect species distributions at different temporal scales.Peer reviewe

Decomposing the spatial and temporal effects of climate on bird populations in northern European mountains

The relationships between species abundance or occurrence versus spatial variation in climate are commonly used in species distribution models to forecast future distributions. Under "space-for-time substitution", the effects of climate variation on species are assumed to be equivalent in both space and time. Two unresolved issues of space-for-time substitution are the time period for species' responses and also the relative contributions of rapid- versus slow reactions in shaping spatial and temporal responses to climate change. To test the assumption of equivalence, we used a new approach of climate decomposition to separate variation in temperature and precipitation in Fennoscandia into spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal components over a 23-year period (1996-2018). We compiled information on land cover, topography, and six components of climate for 1756 fixed route surveys, and we modeled annual counts of 39 bird species breeding in the mountains of Fennoscandia. Local abundance of breeding birds was associated with the spatial components of climate as expected, but the temporal and spatiotemporal climatic variation from the current and previous breeding seasons were also important. The directions of the effects of the three climate components differed within and among species, suggesting that species can respond both rapidly and slowly to climate variation and that the responses represent different ecological processes. Thus, the assumption of equivalent species' response to spatial and temporal variation in climate was seldom met in our study system. Consequently, for the majority of our species, space-for-time substitution may only be applicable once the slow species' responses to a changing climate have occurred, whereas forecasts for the near future need to accommodate the temporal components of climate variation. However, appropriate forecast horizons for space-for-time substitution are rarely considered and may be difficult to reliably identify. Accurately predicting change is challenging because multiple ecological processes affect species distributions at different temporal scales

Suojelualueverkosto muuttuvassa ilmastossa - kohti ilmastoviisasta suojelualuesuunnittelua

Ilmastoviisaan luonnonsuojelusuunnittelun perustana on tieto siitä, millä alueilla ilmasto muuttuu voimakkaimmin, mitkä suojelualueet, lajit ja lajipopulaatiot sekä luontotyypit ovat kaikkein alttiimpia muutokselle ja miten muutokseen sopeudutaan. SUMI-hankkeessa selvitettiin lämpösumman, tammikuun keskilämpötilan ja vuosittaisen vesitaseen muutosnopeutta ja pienilmastollisia muutoksia Suomen Natura 2000 -verkostossa. Lämpösumman ja tammikuun lämpötilan ennustetuissa muutosnopeuksissa on merkittäviä alueellisia eroja ja Natura-alueiden pienilmasto tulee muuttumaan huomattavasti. Avainasemassa on turvata lajit, joiden populaatioiden menestyminen liittyy nopeimmin muuttuviin ilmastotekijöihin. Suojelualuesuunnittelussa tulee painottaa suojelu- ja hoitotoimien joustavaa suunnittelua sekä varautua mittaviin olosuhteiden muutoksiin. Ennallistaminen ja luonnonhoito ovat tärkeitä keinoja lajien elinympäristöjen ja luontotyyppien tilan parantamiseksi muuttuvassa ilmastossa. Kohdentamalla ennallistamista ja luonnonhoitoa ilmastoviisaasti voidaan tukea lajien siirtymistä. Lajien ominaisuudet vaikuttavat niiden haavoittuvuuteen ilmastonmuutokselle; negatiiviset vaikutukset korostuvat pohjoisen viileisiin oloihin, kuten tunturi- ja suoelinympäristöihin, erikoistuneilla lajeilla, joiden leviämiskyky on rajoittunut. Eri eliöryhmillä nousi esille myös muita lajien haavoittuvuutta ilmastonmuutokselle heijastelevia ominaisuuksia, joita on tärkeää huomioida lajien hoito- ja suojelusuunnittelussa. Lajien ominaisuuksien perusteella tunnistettiin joukko ilmastonmuutokselle haavoittuvimpia lajeja, joihin suojelutoimia kannattaa kohdentaa. Luontodirektiivilajien - ja etenkin saman lajin populaatioiden - välillä oli selviä eroja lajien altistumisessa lämpösumman ja tammikuun lämpötilan muutosnopeuteen, sekä esiintymien ympäristön haitallisen maankäytön määrässä. SUMI-hankkeessa tarkasteltiin suojelualueverkoston merkitystä maalinnustolle sekä havaittujen että ennustettujen levinneisyysmuutosten osalta. Suojelullisesti arvokkaiden suo- ja tunturilajien lajimäärä pieneni sekä suojelualueilla että suojelemattomilla alueilla, kun taas kosteikkolajien määrä kasvoi koko maassa. Suojelualueet puskuroivat ilmastonmuutoksen negatiivisia vaikutuksia suojelullisesti merkittäville lajeille, mutta vaikutukset ovat jo nähtävissä niilläkin. Linnuston monimuotoisuuden kannalta suojelualueverkosto on perustettu ilmastonmuutoksen näkökulmasta oikeansuuntaisesti, mutta Etelä- ja Keski-Suomessa metsien suojelualueverkosto on riittämätön turvaamaan lintulajiston monimuotoisuuden. Ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutukset luontotyyppeihin ovat ensisijassa laadullisia. Herkimmiksi luontotyypeiksi on tunnistettu rannikon hauru- ja meriajokasvallit sekä primäärisukkessioon liittyvät luontotyypit, lumenviipymät, tunturikoivikot, tunturikankaat, virtavesien latvapurot, Tunturi-Lapin pienvedet, perinnebiotoopit, palsasuot, eteläiset aapasuot, lähteet ja lähdesuot sekä avoimet ja puoliavoimet kallioluontotyypit. Ilmastonmuutoksen myötä lisääntyvien luontaisten häiriöiden arvioidaan vaikuttavan positiivisesti metsien rakenteeseen lisäämällä kuolleen puun sekä runsaslahopuustoisten nuorten sukkessiovaiheiden ja lehtipuiden määrää. Monimuotoiset metsät ovat avainasemassa metsien ekosysteemipalveluiden ja sopeutumiskyvyn turvaamisessa. SUMI-hankkeessa kehitettiin laskentamenetelmää, jonka avulla voidaan arvioida metsän käsittelytapojen ja ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutuksia metsien hiilitaseeseen tarkalla resoluutiolla. Alustavien mallinnustulosten mukaan puuston ja metsämaan hiilivarasto kasvoi sekä suojelumetsä- että talousmetsäskenaariossa Evon alueella vuosina 2013–2099. Suojelumetsä sitoi hiiltä hitaammin kuin talousmetsä mutta säilyi hiilen nieluna koko tarkastelujakson ajan. Yhdistämällä hiilitasearviot luonnon monimuotoisuutta kuvaaviin paikkatietoaineistoihin voidaan suojelualuesuunnittelussa priorisoida sekä ilmastohyödyiltään että luontoarvoiltaan parhaita kohteita

Predicting the future for endangered birds

Predicting the future for endangered birds Climate and habitat explain to a large extent the distribution and abundance of species but nowadays climate change and increasing pressure on land use are causing notable declines in various species populations, and even extinctions [1]. From the cost-efficient conservation management point-of-view it is important to know which (currently common) species are in risk to become endangered in the future. To prevent species from becoming endangered we should also understand which factors are causing population declines. Here we use presence-absence data on 265 bird species to model their future breeding distribution areas. We use species which were observed in the common bird monitoring scheme censuses in Finland, Sweden and Norway during 1975-2015. In the analysis we use the groundbreaking concept of Hierarchical Modelling of Species Communities to build an ecological model that explains species occurrence [2]. The model is unique in that it takes into account not only climate and habitat but also species traits such as migratory behavior, taxonomic relatedness and the co-occurrence of other species. By adding various scenarios of climate change (increasing temperature) into the model, we will be able to make predictions of future species occurrence. The results will help to understand how climate change will affect various species, and how we should prepare for those changes. In addition we will explain how the results can be applied in the national red listing as researchers are currently compiling an updated Red List of Finnish bird species. For the first time the Finnish evaluation includes use of criterion E, which requires an extensive quantitative analysis to estimate the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history, habitat requirements, threats and any specified management options [3]. References: [1] Howard, C., Stephens, P. A., Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Gregory, R. D. & Willis, S. G. 2015: The drivers of avian abundances: patterns in the relative importance of climate and land use. Global Ecology and Biogeography 24: 1249-1260. [2] Ovaskainen, O., Tikhonov, G., Norberg, A., Guillaume Blanchet, F., Duan, L., Dunson, D., Roslin, T. & Abrego, N. 2017: How to make more out of community data? A conceptual framework and its implementation as models and software. Ecol.Lett. 20: 561-576. [3] Mannerkoski, I. & Ryttäri, T. 2007: Eliölajien uhanalaisuuden arviointi- Maailman luonnonsuojeluliiton (IUCN) ohjeet. Ympäristöopas.peerReviewe

Wind energy expansion and birds:Identifying priority areas for impact avoidance at a national level

Wind energy can harm birds through collision mortality, displacement, barrier to movements, and habitat loss or degradation with largely unknown consequences for their populations. Impact avoidance via appropriate site selection is the most effective means for preventing or alleviating damage from wind energy. Appropriate site selection requires a knowledge of landscape priorities. Here, we used a Spatial Conservation Prioritisation software to identify priority areas for bird conservation in relation to onshore wind energy in Finland, providing spatial guidance for impact avoidance at the national level. We showed that high bird priority areas are mainly concentrated in coastal and adjacent areas, thus entailing marked regional differences and responsibilities. Only a fraction of high priority areas (e.g., 15 % of 10 % top priority areas) is under some level of protection, indi-cating that the network of protected areas should be expanded to safeguard sensitive species. We found that the west coast, in particular, concentrates potential conflicts between birds and wind energy due to the co -occurrence of high priority areas and extensive wind energy development regionally. Thus, focusing conserva-tion action away from areas already extensively targeted by wind energy cannot meet the conservation needs of many sensitive species, some of which occur exclusively or mainly in coastal areas. We recommend that birds be protected by avoiding construction in high priority areas and conducting careful spatial planning in coastal and potentially high conflict areas. Our results can contribute to bird conservation schemes, while addressing the pressing issue of biodiversity protection in the context of energy transition

Decomposing the spatial and temporal effects of climate on bird populations in northern European mountains

The relationships between species abundance or occurrence versus spatial variation in climate are commonly used in species distribution models (SDMs) to forecast future distributions. Under “space-for-time-substitution”, the effects of climate variation on species are assumed to be equivalent in both space and time. Two unresolved issues of space-for-time-substitution are the time period for species’ responses and also the relative contributions of rapid- versus slow re actions i n shaping spatial and temporal responses to climate change. To test the assumption of equivalence, we used a new approach of climatedecomposition to separate variationin temperature and precipitation i n Fennoscandi a into spatial, temporal and spatio-temporal components over a 23-year period (1996-2018). We compiled information on land cover, topography and six components of climate for 1756 fixed routesurveys and we modelled annual counts of 39 bird species breeding in the mountai nsof Fennoscandia. Local abundance of breeding birds was associated with the spatial components of climate as expected, but the temporal and spatio-temporal climatic variation from the current and previous breeding seasons were also important. The directions of the effects of the three climate components differed within and among species, suggesting that species can respond both rapidly and slowly to climate variation and that the responses represent different ecological processes. Thus, t he assumption of equivalent species’ response to spatial and temporal variation in climate was seldom met in our study system. C onsequently, for the majority of our species, space-for-time substitution may only be applicable once the slow species’ responses to a changi ng climate have occurred. Whereas forecasts for the near future need to accommodate the temporal components of climate variation. However, appropriate forecast horizons for space-for-time substitution are rarely considered and may be difficult to reliably identify. Accurately predicti ng change is challenging because multiple ecological processes affect species distributions at different temporal scales. Anticipatory forecasts, climate decomposition, dynamic forecasts, forecast hori zon, space-for-time substitution, spatio-temporal forecasting, spatio-temporal pattern,species distribution models, static forecast