Innovación social en el contexto del COVID-19: Hacia la conformación de sistemas territoriales de innovación

Ante la pandemia Covid-19, instituciones, organismos y empresas de diferentes sectores han llevado a cabo diferentes esfuerzos para reducir y contrarrestar los efectos negativos; algunos relacionados con el desarrollo de nuevos o mejorados productos, procesos, servicios y modelos que impactan directamente en la prevención, tratamiento y mejoras en calidad de vida de quienes han superado la enfermedad. Lo anterior, implica una respuesta a la problemática mediante el desarrollo de innovaciones, algunas de ellas, no han estado motivadas necesariamente por la ganancia, ante la creciente brecha de desigualdad socioeconómica, sino que han tenido el objetivo principal de generar valor social o cambios sociales positivos con la finalidad de atender la problemática, como es el caso de instituciones académicas, centros públicos de investigación, organizaciones sociales, entre otras. En este sentido, la emergencia de múltiples iniciativas, invenciones, procesos, productos y servicios han favorecido el desarrollo de innovaciones sociales, misas que se asocian con la novedad proveniente de la generación y aplicación del conocimiento, en la búsqueda de atender problemas y necesidades sociales (o generar valor social), mejorando así las condiciones de vida. Así, la emergencia de innovaciones sociales para atender la pandemia COVID-19, nos ha llevado a plantear la necesidad de contar con mecanismos que permitan institucionalizar y territorializar dichos esfuerzos, además de promover la generación de un mayor número de este tipo de innovaciones; lo anterior, al retomar el análisis de los sistemas de innovación que nos permita desarrollar el diseño y la articulación de sistemas territoriales de innovación social. En este sentido el objetivo general de esta propuesta consiste Analizar la emergencia de innovaciones sociales relacionadas con la pandemia COVID-19 para su institucionalización mediante el diseño de sistemas territoriales de innovación social; del cual se desprenden tres objetivos particulares: 1) Identificar las invenciones tecnológicas relacionadas con la pandemia COVID-19 a nivel global; 2) Analizar las innovaciones sociales que han surgido de la pandemia COVID-19 en México y, 3) Proponer el diseño de sistemas territoriales de innovación social relacionados con la pandemia COVID-19. Para el cumplimiento de dichos objetivos, se consideran como estrategias y métodos la utilización de diversas fuentes como son la observación, la revisión documental, el análisis de bases de datos, la vigilancia tecnológica, el análisis de contenido, las entrevistas semiestructuradas con dos tipos de muestreo no probabilístico (intencional y de bola de nieva), la síntesis cruzada en los estudios de caso múltiples y el mapeo de actores y capacidades para el diseño del sistema territorial de innovación social

Unraveling complex relations between forest-cover change and conflicts through spatial and relational analyses

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu MdM-2015-0552Despite the increasing prevalence of forest-cover change and conflicts, most studies have been unable to unravel the complex relations between the two processes. We attribute this failure to methodological limitations. We put forward an alternative approach that combines different datasets (remote sensing, GIS, local narratives, official censuses, newspaper articles), methods (spatial and relational analyses), and scales (subregions, economic sectors, land-based activities) to create a robust explanation of the relations between different intensities of forest-cover change and conflict in the Meseta Purépecha region, central Mexico. This is an important forest region, inhabited by indigenous and mestizo peasants; it has a worldwide reputation for community forestry and is also the epicenter of international avocado production. Forest-cover change is intense and there are recurrent episodes of conflict. We clustered communities in three subregions according to their patterns of forest-cover change. We analyzed the spatial patterns of forest-cover change and conflicts and we characterized the structure and function of the different economic sectors to unravel the nonlinear, interdependent (and sometimes contradictory) relations among these processes. We found that avocado production has differentially shaped the composition and working of society within each subregion, leading to three diverging patterns. Avocado production has provoked conflicts over landownership and over illegal logging in nearby areas. In some areas, a low incidence of conflicts over forest clearance might be explained by high profits, coercion, and violence. We suggest that, by combining spatial and relational analyses, we can integrate and check the congruence of nonequivalent representations from quantitative sources and observant participation at different scales and explain the heterogeneity that processes display across space. Our methodological approach can thus improve our understanding of similar and other complex and uncertain environmental problems elsewhere, especially when accurate or appropriate data are missing

Textural classification of land cover using support vector machines : an empirical comparison with parametric, non parametric and hybrid classifiers in the Bolivian Amazon

Land cover classification is a key research field in remote sensing and land change science as thematic maps derived from remotely sensed data have become the basis for analyzing many socio-ecological issues. However, land cover classification remains a difficult task and it is especially challenging in heterogeneous tropical landscapes where nonetheless such maps are of great importance. The present study aims to establish an efficient classification approach to accurately map all broad land cover classes in a large, heterogeneous tropical area of Bolivia, as a basis for further studies (e.g., land cover-land use change). Specifically, we compare the performance of parametric (maximum likelihood), non-parametric (k-nearest neighbour and four different support vector machines - SVM), and hybrid classifiers, using both hard and soft (fuzzy) accuracy assessments. In addition, we test whether the inclusion of a textural index (homogeneity) in the classifications improves their performance. We classified Landsat imagery for two dates corresponding to dry and wet seasons and found that non-parametric, and particularly SVM classifiers, outperformed both parametric and hybrid classifiers. We also found that the use of the homogeneity index along with reflectance bands significantly increased the overall accuracy of all the classifications, but particularly of SVM algorithms. We observed that improvements in producer's and user's accuracies through the inclusion of the homogeneity index were different depending on land cover classes. Earlygrowth/degraded forests, pastures, grasslands and savanna were the classes most improved, especially with the SVM radial basis function and SVM sigmoid classifiers, though with both classifiers all land cover classes were mapped with producer's and user's accuracies of around 90%. Our approach seems very well suited to accurately map land cover in tropical regions, thus having the potential to contribute to conservation initiatives, climate change mitigation schemes such as REDD+, and rural development policies

High overlap between traditional ecological knowledge and forest conservation found in the Bolivian Amazon

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu MdM-2015-0552Altres ajuts: FBBVA research grant (BIOCON_06_106-07)It has been suggested that traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) may play a key role in forest conservation. However, empirical studies assessing to what extent TEK is associated with forest conservation compared with other variables are rare. Furthermore, to our knowledge, the spatial overlap of TEK and forest conservation has not been evaluated at fine scales. In this paper, we address both issues through a case study with Tsimane' Amerindians in the Bolivian Amazon. We sampled 624 households across 59 villages to estimate TEK and used remote sensing data to assess forest conservation. We ran statistical and spatial analyses to evaluate whether TEK was associated and spatially overlapped with forest conservation at the village level. We find that Tsimane' TEK is significantly and positively associated with forest conservation although acculturation variables bear stronger and negative associations with forest conservation. We also find a very significant spatial overlap between levels of Tsimane' TEK and forest conservation. We discuss the potential reasons underpinning our results, which provide insights that may be useful for informing policies in the realms of development, conservation, and climate. We posit that the protection of indigenous cultural systems is vital and urgent to create more effective policies in such realms

Mapping, quantifying and assessing the effects of different social factors underlying recent trends in tropical forest cover change and biocultural conservation A case study on the ancestral lands of Tsimane' Amerindians (Bolivian Amazon)

Los bosques tropicales juegan un papel clave en la conservación de la biodiversidad, la regulación hidrológica, el clima regional y global, y son vitales para el sustento de sus habitantes. Sin embargo, la extensión actual y la intensidad de los cambios de usos del suelo y de cobertura en los bosques tropicales están propiciando su pérdida, fragmentación y degradación a un ritmo alarmante. Por lo tanto, comprender los factores subyacentes a la pérdida y al empobrecimiento de los bosques tropicales es un asunto de enorme importancia para que se puedan implementar políticas de conservación más eficaces. En esta tesis doctoral llevo a cabo un estudio de caso sobre las tierras ancestrales de indígenas Tsimane', una sociedad indígena de cazadores-recolectores y agricultores nativos de la Amazonía boliviana, con los objetivos principales de cartografiar, cuantificar y evaluar los efectos de diferentes factores sociales que subyacen a las tendencias recientes en el cambio de la cubierta forestal y los niveles de conservación biológica y cultural. En concreto, dedico el primer capítulo de investigación a elaborar un enfoque eficaz para mapear con precisión clases generales de usos del suelo/cobertura, que incluyen tanto los bosques en regeneración como los maduros, como base para la evaluación de las tendencias en el cambio de la cubierta forestal y del grado de conservación forestal. En el segundo capítulo de investigación evalúo el efecto de diferentes sistemas de tenencia de la tierra en el cambio de la cubierta forestal, mientras que en el tercero investigo el papel potencial del conocimiento ecológico tradicional indígena en la conservación de los bosques maduros, en un momento en que el conocimiento se está perdiendo debido a un proceso de aculturación rápida. Aunque la tenencia de la tierra y el cambio cultural pueden ser factores subyacentes a los cambios en la cobertura forestal, y por tanto determinantes de su grado de conservación, hasta la fecha sus efectos no han sido adecuadamente examinados, por lo que esta tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo contribuir a la escasa investigación existente sobre estos temas. Los Tsimane' constituyen un excelente caso de estudio para lograr los objetivos de esta tesis porque sus asentamientos están dispersos en diferentes sistemas de tenencia de la tierra, y porque muestran la mayor variación entre los nativos amazónicos bolivianos con respecto a la integración del mercado, lo que también se refleja en una gran variación en cuanto a conocimientos ecológicos tradicionales y aculturación. Además, debido a que han sido ampliamente estudiados en los últimos 15 años y a que hay estudios históricos acerca de ellos, puedo recurrir a los datos y resultados existentes para interpretar mejor mis resultados. Mis resultados contribuyen a mejorar los métodos existentes para mapear y cuantificar los cambios de usos del suelo y de cubiertas en paisajes tropicales heterogéneos, lo cual es difícil y sin embargo fundamental para mejorar las estimaciones de carbono en bosques, las evaluaciones sobre biodiversidad, la gestión de los recursos naturales, y la planificación territorial. Además, uso un enfoque novedoso para integrar y analizar los datos derivados de las imágenes de satélite con datos obtenidos encuestas sociales, lo cual continúa siendo una tarea complicada en la ciencia del cambio de usos del suelo y de cubiertas. A nivel teórico, mis resultados proporcionan nuevos conocimientos sobre los efectos de la tenencia de la tierra y el conocimiento indígena en la conservación de los bosques tropicales, que son factores todavía poco conocidos tanto en la cuenca del Amazonas como otros lugares. Mis resultados tienen implicaciones importantes para las políticas públicas para el desarrollo socioeconómico y la conservación del medio ambiente en la Amazonía y doy algunas recomendaciones en materia de políticas públicas, desde una perspectiva de conservación biocultural. Por ejemplo, mis resultados sobre los efectos de la tenencia de la tierra sobre los cambios en la cubierta forestal demuestran que los territorios indígenas puede ser tan eficaces como las áreas protegidas para la conservación forestal, lo que sugiere los beneficios de ampliar el número y/o tamaño de los territorios indígenas, y la necesidad de fortalecer la gobernanza indígena. Los resultados también muestran que las concesiones madereras pueden ser muy eficaces para prevenir los bosques de la deforestación, y que algún incentivo de conservación es necesario en terrenos privados para reducir sus altos niveles (y crecientes) de la deforestación y la degradación forestal. En cuanto al papel del conocimiento ecológico tradicional de los pueblos indígenas en la conservación forestal, mis resultados muestran que los niveles de ambos están significativamente asociados, y que existe entre ellos una superposición espacial muy importante, algo que no había sido evaluado con rigor a escala local, y que puede sugerir la existencia de un conexión funcional entre la diversidad cultural y biológica. Este hallazgo implica que las políticas de conservación forestal deben buscar también la protección del conocimiento indígena, lo cual tiene importantes implicaciones para los derechos indígenas sobre la tierra y los recursos naturales.Tropical forests play a key role in biodiversity conservation, hydrological regulation, regional and global climate, and are vital to support the livelihoods of their dwellers. Nevertheless, the current extent and intensity of land use/cover change in tropical forests is driving their loss, fragmentation, and degradation at alarming rates. Therefore, it is a matter of the utmost importance to understand the underlying driving forces of loss and impoverishment of tropical forests so that more effective conservation policies can be enacted. In this PhD thesis I carry out a case study on the ancestral lands of Tsimane' Amerindians, an indigenous society of hunter-gatherers and farmers native to the Bolivian Amazon, with the primary goals of mapping, quantifying and assessing the effects of different social factors underlying recent trends in forest cover change and levels of biological and cultural conservation. Specifically, I devote the first research chapter to devise an efficient remote sensing classification approach to accurately map broad land cover classes, including both early-growth and old-growth forests, as a basis for the assessments of trends in forest cover change and of forest conservation. In the second research chapter I assess the effects of different land tenure systems on forest cover change, while in the third one I evaluate the potential role of indigenous traditional ecological knowledge in old-growth forest conservation at a time such knowledge is being lost due to a rapid acculturation process. Although land tenure and cultural change may underlie tropical forest cover change and thus forest conservation, to date their effects have not been adequately examined, and this PhD thesis aims to contribute to previous research on such topics. The Tsimane' constitute an excellent case study to accomplish the goals of this thesis because their settlements are currently scattered across different land tenure systems, and because they display the largest variation amongst native Bolivian Amazonians regarding market integration, which also reflects on a great variation regarding traditional ecological knowledge and acculturation. Also, because they have been extensively studied in the last 15 years and there are historical studies about them, so I can draw on previous data and results to better interpret my findings. My results contribute to improving methods for mapping and quantifying land use/cover change in tropical heterogeneous landscapes, which is challenging and nevertheless critical to enhance carbon mapping, biodiversity assessments, natural resource management, and territorial planning. In addition, I use a novel approach to integrate and analyze data derived from remote sensing imagery with data obtained from social surveys, which remains a challenging task in land change science. At a theoretical level, my findings provide new insights into the effects of land tenure and indigenous knowledge on tropical forest conservation, which are factors still poorly understood in the Amazon basin and elsewhere. My results have significant implications for public policies aimed at socioeconomic development and environmental conservation in the Amazon and I give some policy recommendations drawn from a biocultural conservation perspective. For instance, my results on the effects of land tenure on forest cover change show that indigenous territories may be as effective as protected areas for forest conservation, which suggests the benefits of expanding the number and/or size of indigenous territories and the need of strengthening indigenous governance. Results also show that logging concessions may be very effective to prevent forest from clear-cutting, and that conservation incentives are needed in private lands to curtail their high and increasing levels of deforestation and forest degradation. As regards the role of indigenous traditional ecological knowledge in forest conservation, I find both their levels are significantly associated, and that there is a very significant spatial overlap, something that had not been assessed at the local scale, and that suggests the existence of a functional connection between both cultural and biological diversity. This finding implies that forest conservation policies should proceed hand in hand with the protection of indigenous knowledge, which has important implications for indigenous rights to land and natural resources management

English

Alternatives to development represent fairer forms of social, economic, and political organization, including environmental sustainability criteria as well. Many new outcomes are created during the design and everyday construction of alternatives to development (e.g., knowledge, practices, social relations, institutions). We may think, therefore, that innovation plays a key role in how such alternatives are imagined and materialized. However, the literature on alternatives to development does not appear to have focused much on innovation. In addition, there is academic literature on innovation that has coined and developed the concept of “grassroots innovation” to refer to innovation realized by grassroots groups. Yet, this literature does not seem to have focused on alternatives to development as innovation-rich spaces. Based on these observations, our objective in this paper is to analyze the potential role of grassroots innovation in alternatives to development, especially in contexts of the global South. To this end, we conducted a literature review along three axes: (1) grassroots innovation; (2) post-development and alternatives to development; and (3) Zapatism, an alternative to development in Mexico (in the last two axes we looked for direct or indirect references to grassroots innovation). Our results confirmed the previous observations. Nevertheless, we identified multiple and diverse innovative outcomes in the literature on post-development, alternatives to development and Zapatism, and altogether our findings suggest a very important role for grassroots innovation in these alternatives. Based on our review, we have provided a preliminary characterization of how grassroots innovations may look like and occur in alternatives to development (particularly in contexts of the global South). We emphasize the need to develop a theoretical-conceptual framework on grassroots innovation from the global South to improve its explanatory power given the diversity of existing alternatives to development. In addition, we call for more empirical studies that focus on identifying grassroots innovations and assessing their relevance to the design and everyday construction of alternatives to development

The Global Emergence of Community Drones (2012–2017)

The use of drones with or by communities—what we call community drones—has emerged globally over the last decade to serve diverse purposes. Despite a growing academic interest in community drones, most experiences have been documented as gray literature and there are still no publications that review and systematize their use worldwide. Here, we present an overview of the first experiences using community drones—what we refer to as their global emergence (2012–2017). We reviewed gray and academic literature in English and Spanish for the period 2012–2017. We then analyzed the experiences according to their location, date, purpose, type of drone(s) used, agent(s) that carried them out, and methodology used for community participation; “good” and “bad” practices were also included when information was available. We reviewed 39 experiences and found that (1) they mostly occurred in Latin America from 2014; (2) commercial and multirotor drones were the most frequently employed; (3) the main purposes were community training to acquire territorial information for improved defense and/or informed decision-making; (4) most initiatives were driven by external agents and communities’ allies; (5) the most usual forms of community participation were participatory mapping and training workshops, yet local knowledge was either neglected or little valued to complement drone information; and (6) there were no appropriate practices established for community drone usage. Our study improves the little knowledge we have regarding the global emergence of community drones, its geographic trends, and the existing opportunities and challenges to meet the needs and expectations from community drones. In addition, we provide guidelines for appropriate practices that will be useful for communities and social agents interested in the acquisition, training, and use of drones. We conclude by suggesting new avenues to develop theoretical and methodological approaches in relation to the new field of community drones

Uso comunitário de pequenos veículos aéreos não tripulados (“drones”) em conflitos ambientais: um fator de inovação desestabilizador?

En Latinoamérica, los territorios indígenas y campesinos enfrentan graves problemas que generan numerosos conflictos ambientales. En estos territorios, con frecuencia las comunidades padecen situaciones graves de pobreza y exclusión social, carecen de los medios necesarios para hacer frente al deterioro ambiental causado por empresas y otros actores, y no cuentan con el estado para solucionar sus problemas. Por ello, diseñar e implementar participativamente programas de mapeo y monitoreo territorial en estas comunidades, puede resultar muy útil para generar evidencias de los impactos causados y, así, enfrentar un conflicto ambiental con mayores garantías de éxito. En estos casos, pensamos que la utilización comunitaria de vehículos aéreos no tripulados (drones), puede resultar en una innovación social con potencial para desequilibrar la balanza de fuerzas a favor de una comunidad. No obstante, creemos que este desequilibrio también puede darse en sentido inverso, es decir, en contra de la comunidad, dependiendo de diversos factores internos y externos. Con el objetivo de dilucidar el potencial de la herramienta en una situación de conflicto ambiental, en este estudio describimos dos experiencias en México en las que capacitamos a una comunidad indígena en situación de conflicto ambiental en el uso de un dron. Extraemos de ellas varios aspectos para la reflexión e identificamos algunos retos y oportunidades que consideramos de particular relevancia con respecto al objetivo planteado.Na América Latina, os territórios indígenas e camponeses enfrentam graves problemas que geram muitos conflitos ambientais. Nestes territórios, as comunidades sofrem frequentemente graves situações de pobreza e exclusão social, não dispõem dos meios necessários para enfrentar os danos ambientais causados ​​pelas empresas e outros atores, e ainda não contam com o Estado para resolver seus problemas. Portanto, projetar e implementar, de modo participativo, programas de mapeamento e monitoramento territorial nessas comunidades pode ser muito útil para gerar evidências dos impactos causados e, assim, enfrentar um conflito ambiental com maiores chances de sucesso. Nestes casos, pensamos que o uso comunitário de veículos aéreos não tripulados (os “drones”), pode resultar em inovação social com potencial para desequilibrar a balança de forças a favor da comunidade. No entanto, este desequilíbrio também pode ocorrer no sentido contrário; ou seja, a depender de vários fatores internos e externos, a comunidade pode ser desfavorecida. A fim de elucidar o potencial da ferramenta em uma situação de conflito ambiental, neste estudo descrevemos duas experiências no México, nas quais capacitamos ao uso de drone uma comunidade indígena em situação de conflito ambiental. Extraímos delas vários aspectos para reflexão, e identificamos alguns desafios e oportunidades que nos parecem de particular relevância para os objetivos colocados

Community use of small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (drones) in environmental conflicts: an innovative and destabilizing factor?

Na América Latina, os territórios indígenas e camponeses enfrentam graves problemas que geram muitos conflitos ambientais. Nestes territórios, as comunidades sofrem frequentemente graves situações de pobreza e exclusão social, não dispõem dos meios necessários para enfrentar os danos ambientais causados ​​pelas empresas e outros atores, e ainda não contam com o Estado para resolver seus problemas. Portanto, projetar e implementar, de modo participativo, programas de mapeamento e monitoramento territorial nessas comunidades pode ser muito útil para gerar evidências dos impactos causados e, assim, enfrentar um conflito ambiental com maiores chances de sucesso. Nestes casos, pensamos que o uso comunitário de veículos aéreos não tripulados (os “drones”), pode resultar em inovação social com potencial para desequilibrar a balança de forças a favor da comunidade. No entanto, este desequilíbrio também pode ocorrer no sentido contrário; ou seja, a depender de vários fatores internos e externos, a comunidade pode ser desfavorecida. A fim de elucidar o potencial da ferramenta em uma situação de conflito ambiental, neste estudo descrevemos duas experiências no México, nas quais capacitamos ao uso de drone uma comunidade indígena em situação de conflito ambiental. Extraímos delas vários aspectos para reflexão, e identificamos alguns desafios e oportunidades que nos parecem de particular relevância para os objetivos colocados.En Latinoamérica, los territorios indígenas y campesinos enfrentan graves problemas que generan numerosos conflictos ambientales. En estos territorios, con frecuencia las comunidades padecen situaciones graves de pobreza y exclusión social, carecen de los medios necesarios para hacer frente al deterioro ambiental causado por empresas y otros actores, y no cuentan con el estado para solucionar sus problemas. Por ello, diseñar e implementar participativamente programas de mapeo y monitoreo territorial en estas comunidades, puede resultar muy útil para generar evidencias de los impactos causados y, así, enfrentar un conflicto ambiental con mayores garantías de éxito. En estos casos, pensamos que la utilización comunitaria de vehículos aéreos no tripulados (drones), puede resultar en una innovación social con potencial para desequilibrar la balanza de fuerzas a favor de una comunidad. No obstante, creemos que este desequilibrio también puede darse en sentido inverso, es decir, en contra de la comunidad, dependiendo de diversos factores internos y externos. Con el objetivo de dilucidar el potencial de la herramienta en una situación de conflicto ambiental, en este estudio describimos dos experiencias en México en las que capacitamos a una comunidad indígena en situación de conflicto ambiental en el uso de un dron. Extraemos de ellas varios aspectos para la reflexión e identificamos algunos retos y oportunidades que consideramos de particular relevancia con respecto al objetivo planteado

Grassroots innovation for the pluriverse: Evidence from Zapatismo and autonomous Zapatista education

The social and environmental failure of successive Western development models imposed on the global South has led local communities to pursue alternatives to development. Such alternatives seek radical societal transformations that require the production of new knowledge, practices, technologies, and institutions that are effective to achieve more just and sustainable societies. We may think of such a production as innovation driven by social movements, organizations, collectives, indigenous peoples, and local communities. Innovation that is driven by such grassroots groups has been theorized in the academic literature as 'grassroots innovation'. However, research on alternatives to development has rarely examined innovation using grassroots innovation as an analytical framework. Here, we assess how grassroots innovation may contribute to building alternatives to development using Zapatismo in Chiapas (Mexico) as a case study. We focus on grassroots innovation in autonomous Zapatista education because this alternative to formal education plays a vital role in knowledge generation and the production of new social practices within Zapatista communities, which underpin the radical societal transformation being built by Zapatismo. We reviewed the academic literature on grassroots innovation as well as gray literature and audiovisual media on Zapatismo and autonomous Zapatista education. We also conducted ethnographic fieldwork in a Zapatista community and its school. We found innovative educational, pedagogical, and teaching-learning practices based on the (re)production of knowledge and learning, which are not limited to the classroom but linked to all the activities of Zapatistas. Our findings suggest that innovation self-realized by Zapatistas plays a key role on the everyday construction of Zapatismo. Therefore, we argue that a specific theoretical framework of grassroots innovation for the pluriverse, based on empirical work carried out in different alternatives to development, is an urgent task that will contribute to a better understanding of how such alternatives grassroots groups imagine, design, and build, particularly across the global South