Supply Chains and Porous Boundaries: The Disaggregation of Legal Services

The economic downturn has had significant effects on law firms, and is causing many of them to rethink some basic assumptions about how they operate. In important respects, however, the downturn has simply intensified the effects of some deeper trends that preceded it, which are likely to continue after any recovery that may occur. This paper explores one of these trends, which is corporate client insistence that law firms “disaggregate” their services into discrete tasks that can be delegated to the least costly providers who can perform them. With advances in communications technology, there is increasing likelihood that some of these persons may be located outside the formal boundaries of the firm. This means that law firms may need increasingly to confront the make or buy decision that their corporate clients have regularly confronted for some time. The potential for vertical disintegration is a relatively recent development for legal services, but is well-established in other sectors of the global economy. Empirical work in several disciplines has identified a number of issues that arise for organizations as the make or buy decision becomes a potentially more salient feature of their operations. Much of this work has focused in particular on the implications of relying on outsourcing as an integral part of the production process. This paper discusses research on: (1) the challenges of ensuring that work performed outside the firm is fully integrated into the production process; (2) coordinating projects for which networks of organizations are responsible; (3) managing the transfer of knowledge inside and outside of firms that are participants in a supply chain; and (4) addressing the impact of using contingent workers on an organization’s workforce, structure, and culture. A review of this research suggests considerations that law firms will need to assess if they begin significantly to extend the process of providing services beyond their formal boundaries. Discussing the research also is intended to introduce concepts that may become increasingly relevant to law firms, but which currently are not commonly used to analyze their operations. Considering how these concepts are applicable to law firms may prompt us to rethink how to conceptualize these firms and what they do. This paper therefore is a preliminary attempt to explore: (1) the extent to which law firms may come to resemble the vertically disintegrated organizations that populate many other economic sectors and (2) the potential implications of this trend for the provision of legal services,the trajectory of legal careers, and lawyers’ sense of themselves as members of a distinct profession

Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature)

Reactive gases and aerosols are produced by terrestrial ecosystems, processed within plant canopies, and can then be emitted into the above-canopy atmosphere. Estimates of the above-canopy fluxes are needed for quantitative earth system studies and assessments of past, present and future air quality and climate. The Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) is described and used to quantify net terrestrial biosphere emission of isoprene into the atmosphere. MEGAN is designed for both global and regional emission modeling and has global coverage with ~1 km² spatial resolution. Field and laboratory investigations of the processes controlling isoprene emission are described and data available for model development and evaluation are summarized. The factors controlling isoprene emissions include biological, physical and chemical driving variables. MEGAN driving variables are derived from models and satellite and ground observations. Tropical broadleaf trees contribute almost half of the estimated global annual isoprene emission due to their relatively high emission factors and because they are often exposed to conditions that are conducive for isoprene emission. The remaining flux is primarily from shrubs which have a widespread distribution. The annual global isoprene emission estimated with MEGAN ranges from about 500 to 750 Tg isoprene (440 to 660 Tg carbon) depending on the driving variables which include temperature, solar radiation, Leaf Area Index, and plant functional type. The global annual isoprene emission estimated using the standard driving variables is ~600 Tg isoprene. Differences in driving variables result in emission estimates that differ by more than a factor of three for specific times and locations. It is difficult to evaluate isoprene emission estimates using the concentration distributions simulated using chemistry and transport models, due to the substantial uncertainties in other model components, but at least some global models produce reasonable results when using isoprene emission distributions similar to MEGAN estimates. In addition, comparison with isoprene emissions estimated from satellite formaldehyde observations indicates reasonable agreement. The sensitivity of isoprene emissions to earth system changes (e.g., climate and land-use) demonstrates the potential for large future changes in emissions. Using temperature distributions simulated by global climate models for year 2100, MEGAN estimates that isoprene emissions increase by more than a factor of two. This is considerably greater than previous estimates and additional observations are needed to evaluate and improve the methods used to predict future isoprene emissions

Oceanic stochastic parametrizations in a seasonal forecast system

We study the impact of three stochastic parametrizations in the ocean component of a coupled model, on forecast reliability over seasonal timescales. The relative impacts of these schemes upon the ocean mean state and ensemble spread are analyzed. The oceanic variability induced by the atmospheric forcing of the coupled system is, in most regions, the major source of ensemble spread. The largest impact on spread and bias came from the Stochastically Perturbed Parametrization Tendency (SPPT) scheme - which has proven particularly effective in the atmosphere. The key regions affected are eddy-active regions, namely the western boundary currents and the Southern Ocean. However, unlike its impact in the atmosphere, SPPT in the ocean did not result in a significant decrease in forecast error. Whilst there are good grounds for implementing stochastic schemes in ocean models, our results suggest that they will have to be more sophisticated. Some suggestions for next-generation stochastic schemes are made.Comment: 24 pages, 3 figure

Oceanic stochastic parametrizations in a seasonal forecast system

We study the impact of three stochastic parametrizations in the ocean component of a coupled model, on forecast reliability over seasonal timescales. The relative impacts of these schemes upon the ocean mean state and ensemble spread are analyzed. The oceanic variability induced by the atmospheric forcing of the coupled system is, in most regions, the major source of ensemble spread. The largest impact on spread and bias came from the Stochastically Perturbed Parametrization Tendency (SPPT) scheme - which has proven particularly effective in the atmosphere. The key regions affected are eddy-active regions, namely the western boundary currents and the Southern Ocean. However, unlike its impact in the atmosphere, SPPT in the ocean did not result in a significant decrease in forecast error. Whilst there are good grounds for implementing stochastic schemes in ocean models, our results suggest that they will have to be more sophisticated. Some suggestions for next-generation stochastic schemes are made.Comment: 24 pages, 3 figure

Mitigating local over-fitting during single particle reconstruction with SIDESPLITTER

Single particle analysis has become a key structural biology technique. Experimental images are extremely noisy, and during iterative refinement it is possible to stably incorporate noise into the reconstruction. Such “over-fitting” can lead to misinterpretation of the structure and flawed biological results. Several strategies are routinely used to prevent over-fitting, the most common being independent refinement of two sides of a split dataset. In this study, we show that over-fitting remains an issue within regions of low local signal-to-noise, despite independent refinement of half datasets. We propose a modification of the refinement process through the application of a local signal-to-noise filter: SIDESPLITTER. We show that our approach can reduce over-fitting for both idealised and experimental data while maintaining independence between the two sides of a split refinement. SIDESPLITTER refinement leads to improved density, and can also lead to improvement of the final resolution in extreme cases where datasets are prone to severe over-fitting, such as small membrane proteins

Maintained physical activity and physiotherapy in the management of distal upper limb pain – a protocol for a randomised controlled trial (the arm pain trial)

<b>Background</b><p></p> Distal upper limb pain (pain affecting the elbow, forearm, wrist, or hand) can be non-specific, or can arise from specific musculoskeletal disorders. It is clinically important and costly, the best approach to clinical management is unclear. Physiotherapy is the standard treatment and, while awaiting treatment, advice is often given to rest and avoid strenuous activities, but there is no evidence base to support these strategies. This paper describes the protocol of a randomised controlled trial to determine, among patients awaiting physiotherapy for distal arm pain, (a) whether advice to remain active and maintain usual activities results in a long-term reduction in arm pain and disability, compared with advice to rest; and (b) whether immediate physiotherapy results in a long-term reduction in arm pain and disability, compared with physiotherapy delivered after a seven week waiting list period.<p></p> <b>Methods/Design</b><p></p> Between January 2012 and January 2014, new referrals to 14 out-patient physiotherapy departments were screened for potential eligibility. Eligible and consenting patients were randomly allocated to one of the following three groups in equal numbers: 1) advice to remain active, 2) advice to rest, 3) immediate physiotherapy. Patients were and followed up at 6, 13, and 26 weeks post-randomisation by self-complete postal questionnaire and, at six weeks, patients who had not received physiotherapy were offered it at this time. The primary outcome is the proportion of patients free of disability at 26 weeks, as determined by the modified DASH (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand) questionnaire.<p></p> We hypothesise (a) that advice to maintain usual activities while awaiting physiotherapy will be superior than advice to rest the arm; and (b) that fast-track physiotherapy will be superior to normal (waiting list) physiotherapy. These hypotheses will be examined using an intention-to-treat analysis.<p></p> <b>Discussion</b><p></p> Results from this trial will contribute to the evidence base underpinning the clinical management of patients with distal upper limb pain, and in particular, will provide guidance on whether they should be advised to rest the arm or remain active within the limits imposed by their symptoms

Child Exploitation and the FIFA World Cup: A review of risks and protective interventions

This review was commissioned by the Child Abuse Programme (CAP) of Oak Foundation, a large international philanthropic organisation. It forms part of CAP’s effort to win societal rejection of practices such as the sexual exploitation of children and adolescents around major sporting events (MSEs), and to embed prevention and protection from exploitation as a permanent concern for global sports-related bodies. This review is intended to inform action in countries that host MSEs and to provide some suggestions on how hosting countries can avoid past pitfalls and mistakes in relation to child exploitation, especially economic and sexual exploitation. Importantly, it also acts as a call to action by those responsible for commissioning and staging MSEs, such as FIFA and the IOC, to anticipate, prepare for and adopt risk mitigation strategies and interventions. Positive leadership from these culturally powerful bodies could prove decisive in shifting hearts, minds and actions in the direction of improved safety for children

A knowledge-based approach to configuration layout, justification, and documentation

The design, development, and implementation is described of a prototype expert system which could aid designers and system engineers in the placement of racks aboard modules on Space Station Freedom. This type of problem is relevant to any program with multiple constraints and requirements demanding solutions which minimize usage of limited resources. This process is generally performed by a single, highly experienced engineer who integrates all the diverse mission requirements and limitations, and develops an overall technical solution which meets program and system requirements with minimal cost, weight, volume, power, etc. This system architect performs an intellectual integration process in which the underlying design rationale is often not fully documented. This is a situation which lends itself to an expert system solution for enhanced consistency, thoroughness, documentation, and change assessment capabilities

Seasonal distribution and drivers of surface fine particulate matter and organic aerosol over the Indo-Gangetic Plain

The Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) is home to 9 % of the global population and is responsible for a large fraction of agricultural crop production in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. Levels of fine particulate matter (mean diameter &lt;2.5 µm, PM2.5) across the IGP often exceed human health recommendations, making cities across the IGP among the most polluted in the world. Seasonal changes in the physical environment over the IGP are dominated by the large-scale south Asian monsoon system that dictates the timing of agricultural planting and harvesting. We use the WRF-Chem model to study the seasonal anthropogenic, pyrogenic, and biogenic influences on fine particulate matter and its constituent organic aerosol (OA) over the IGP that straddles Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh during 2017–2018. We find that surface air quality during pre-monsoon (March–May) and monsoon (June–September) seasons is better than during post-monsoon (October–December) and winter (January–February) seasons, but all seasonal mean values of PM2.5 still exceed the recommended levels, so that air pollution is a year-round problem. Anthropogenic emissions influence the magnitude and distribution of PM2.5 and OA throughout the year, especially over urban sites, while pyrogenic emissions result in localised contributions over the central and upper parts of IGP in all non-monsoonal seasons, with the highest impact during post-monsoon seasons that correspond to the post-harvest season in the agricultural calendar. Biogenic emissions play an important role in the magnitude and distribution of PM2.5 and OA during the monsoon season, and they show a substantial contribution to secondary OA (SOA), particularly over the lower IGP. We find that the OA contribution to PM2.5 is significant in all four seasons (17 %–30 %), with primary OA generally representing the larger fractional contribution. We find that the volatility distribution of SOA is driven mainly by the mean total OA loading and the washout of aerosols and gas-phase aerosol precursors that result in SOA being less volatile during the pre-monsoon and monsoon season than during the post-monsoon and winter seasons.</p

A Knowledge-Based Approach to Configuration Layout, Justification, and Documentation

The design, development, and implementation of a prototype expert system which could aid designers and system engineers in the placement of racks aboard modules on the Space Station Freedom are described. This type of problem is relevant to any program with multiple constraints and requirements demanding solutions which minimize usage of limited resources. This process is generally performed by a single, highly experienced engineer who integrates all the diverse mission requirements and limitations, and develops an overall technical solution which meets program and system requirements with minimal cost, weight, volume, power, etc. This system architect performs an intellectual integration process in which the underlying design rationale is often not fully documented. This is a situation which lends itself to an expert system solution for enhanced consistency, thoroughness, documentation, and change assessment capabilities