Single-bicycle crashes in Finland - characteristics, risk factors, and safety recommendations

Physical inactivity increases the risk of multiple diseases with extensive personal and societal effects [1]. For instance, the annual economic cost of physical inactivity is estimated to be more than 80 billion euros in the European Union (EU) [2]. One measure to increase physical activity is the promotion of active transport modes, such as cycling. Finland is aiming to increase the mode share of active transport modes to 35-38% by 2030 [3]. In tbe most recent national travel survey 8% of daily trips were made by bicycle and 22% of daily trips involved walking [ 4]. A shift from cars to more sustainable transport modes is desirable, however more work is needed to promote cycling safety, with cyclists over-represented in fatal (11%) and serious injuries (32%) when compared to mode share [5]. Amongst cyclist crashes in Finland, single-bicycle crashes (SBCs), where other road users are not collided with, represent more than half of non-fatal injuries [6-7] and 46% of fatal injuries [8--9]. This proportion of non-fatal injuries is similar to findings from other jurisdictions [6]. However, the rate of fatal injuries in SBCs is substantially higher in Finland compared to the average rate in Europe [10], highlighting the importance of understanding SBCs in a Finnish context. Analyses of SBCs are usually more challenging than crashes between bicycles and motor vehicles because SBCs are typically underreported in police-reported crash data [11]. However, in Finland, road crash investigation teams investigate almost all fatal road crashes, including SBCs. This captures high-quality information on SBCs including their contributory and background risk factors, as well as safety recommendations. Identifying the contributory factors that enable the occurrence of crashes and implementing actions to prevent these crashes can help promote cycling safety [ 12]. Such analyses and actions are particularly needed in Finland, where there are targets to increase the mode share of cycling. Given the robust data available through the in-depth investigations undertaken in Finland, this study aims to increase knowledge on SBCs and their safety recommendations by analysing data on fatal cycling crashes in Finland. The study compares the key characteristics, risk factors and safety recommendations regarding SBCs and other cyclist crashes. Although the data for this study is sourced from Finland, the findings are useful in other countries with similar bicycle infrastructure and weather conditions. [From: Introduction

Technology readiness and intentions to use conditionally automated vehicles

Connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) are an emerging technology predicted to become available to the public over the next several decades. CAVs offer a range of potential benefits to the driver and broader society including reducing road trauma, decreasing traffic congestion, and offering new mobility choices. However, there is uncertainty regarding uptake of this new technology. If users do not see the value in the technology, it is unlikely to be fully adopted and the potential benefits of CAVs will not be realised. One commonly used instrument to investigate user acceptance of new technology is the Technology Readiness Index (TRI). The TRI has been used to investigate intentions to use CAVs in various countries, however no such study has been undertaken in Finland. As such the aim of this research was to investigate technology readiness and intentions to use conditionally automated vehicles amongst Finnish residents. A total of 384 participants (M = 46.9yrs; SD = 14.9yrs, 24.5 % female) completed a survey consisting of the TRI 2.0, demographics, car ownership, driving information and intentions to use conditionally automated vehicles. A multilinear regression was conducted to examine the factors that influence self-reported intentions to use a conditionally automated vehicle. When controlling for the other variables, Optimism and Insecurity were significantly associated with intentions to use a conditionally automated vehicle. Optimism had a positive correlation, with stronger intentions to use a conditionally automated vehicle among those who were more optimistic towards technology. Participants with lower levels of insecurity, that is, those who felt more secure with technology, also had stronger intentions to use a conditionally automated vehicle. The other significant variable in the model was previous experience with a CAV which had a significant positive relationship. The study adds to the existing literature regarding CAV adoption and provides added insight within a Finnish context of how exposure to technology and the factors of the TRI can influence intentions to use conditionally automated vehicles.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Mobile phone use while driving in Finland

Mobile phones represent one of the most common distractions for drivers and phone use while driving is particularly problematic in Finland. The aim of this research was to explore the Finnish sample of responses from ESRA2 (E-Survey of Road users' Attitudes) with a specific focus on the distracting behaviours related to mobile phone usage while driving. ESRA2 data is derived from online surveys amongst a representative sample of the adult populations in each participating country. In total a sample of 994 responses were collected in Finland for ESRA2, which included 703 responses from participants who held a driver's licence and reported driving a car in the 30 days prior to the survey. The results provide evidence of the problematic usage of mobile phones while driving in Finland. Mobile phone use was considered across three specific types of usage: (1) handheld phone calls while driving; (2) handsfree phone calls while driving; (3) texting, emailing or social media use while driving. Almost half (49.4 %) of the sample reported using a handheld mobile phone to make a call while driving at least once in the 30 days prior to the survey. A similar percentage (41.4 %) of the sample had used a phone hands-free and 35.6 % had texted, emailed, or used social media. The study highlights how mobile phone usage is a complex and multifaceted issue and that there are a broad range of underlying factors that influence mobile phone usage depending on the way in which people engage with their mobile phone while driving. The findings suggest that a systematic approach to reducing mobile phone distraction is needed that addresses the issue through a combination of legislation, enforcement, and education.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Travel behaviour change research : A scientometric review and content analysis

A travel behaviour change approach complements hard transport measures to develop more sustainable transport systems. Travel behaviour change is a growing field of research, with a range of theories, behaviours and tools being studied. Consequently, a wide-angled review is critical for synthesising knowledge in this field. This study conducted a scientometric review of travel behaviour change literature, identifying the main characteristics, key journals, research categories, keywords, authors, institutions, countries and cited references. In addition, a content analysis was conducted to identify current research trends and gaps in the field and develop a future research agenda. The scientometric component of the review analysed the bibliographic data of 323 academic records. The review identified that the field has a long history and has grown significantly since 2011. The content analysis of recent research (n = 17 articles) supported previous findings that travel behaviour change interventions can result in changing behaviour. The main target behaviours are private motor vehicle use, bicycling and public transport. Notably absent is trip avoidance research. Information dissemination strategies are the main tools trialled, including personalised travel plans, websites and apps. Finally, we propose six research directions for the travel behaviour change field: multiple research methods; identify effective intervention components; locally contextualised research; further segmentation research; longer-term studies; and trip avoidance research. Trip avoidance research is most urgent, as experiences due to COVID-19 have shown, working from home could have a significant positive impact on the sustainability of our transport systems.Peer reviewe

Unsafety on two wheels, or social prejudice? Proxying behavioral reports on bicycle and e-scooter riding safety - A mixed-methods study

The use of non-motorized transportation and micro-mobility is increasing in many cities. Bicycle riding and e-scooter use are now more common and affordable than ever. However, users of these devices face certain key issues. These include their own risky behaviors as well as involvement in conflicts with other road users. Self-report data may not adequately capture these behaviors and interactions. Despite this, more objective data (i.e., how third parties perceive these users' road behaviors) is scarce. Aims: This study aimed to understand whether e-scooter riders have com- parable or different riding behaviors than cyclists. This was investigated using a mixed-method study. Methods: This paper is divided into two sub-studies. In Study 1, 950 Spanish non- cyclists and non-e-scooter riders (mean age 31.98 ± 13.27 years; 55.3% female) provided external ratings (proxies) regarding the perceived behaviors of bicycle and e-scooter riders. In Study 2, collective Rapid Assessment Processes (RAPs; n = 23) were used to develop qualitative configurations of some of the key risky behaviors highlighted in Study 1. Results: There were significant differences in the perceived errors and violations rated by proxies for both types of riders (with e-scooter riders perceived as having higher rates of risky behaviors). However, there were also structural differences in the effects of external raters' risk perceptions, traffic rule knowledge, and traffic incidents with two-wheeled riders on how they rated the behaviors. Conclusion: The results of both studies suggest that external raters' perceptions provide further understanding of the causes, dynamics, and conflicts related to road behaviors performed by certain groups of road users. This is particularly apparent when there is no clear legislation and information on safe riding in urban areas. In this sense, improving infrastructure could promote safer interactions. Finally, road safety education could focus on promoting safer practices and interactions in order to improve how others perceive riders' behavior

On-road virtual reality autonomous vehicle (VRAV) simulator : An empirical study on user experience

Autonomous-vehicle (AV) technologies are rapidly advancing, but a great deal remains to be learned about their interaction and perception on public roads. Research in this area usually relies on AV trials using naturalistic driving which are expensive with various legal and ethical obstacles designed to keep the general public safe. The emerging concept of Wizard-of-Oz simulation is a promising solution to this problem wherein the driver of a standard vehicle is hidden from the passenger using a physical partition, providing the illusion of riding in an AV. Furthermore, head-mounted display (HMD) virtual reality (VR) has been proposed as a means of providing a Wizard-of-Oz protocol for on-road simulations of AVs. Such systems have potential to support a variety of study conditions at low cost, enabling simulation of a variety of vehicles, driving conditions, and circumstances. However, the feasibility of such systems has yet to be shown. This study makes use of a within-subjects factorial design for examining and evaluating a virtual reality autonomous vehicle (VRAV) system, with the aim of better understanding the differences between stationary and on-road simulations, both with and without HMD VR. More specifically, this study examines the effects on user experience of conditions including presence, arousal, simulator sickness and task workload. Participants indicated a realistic and immersive driving experience as part of subjective evaluation of the VRAV system, indicating the system is a promising tool for human-automation interaction and future AV technology developments.acceptedVersionPeer reviewe

Personality traits, risky riding behaviors and crash-related outcomes: findings from 5,778 cyclists in 17 countries

The last few years have brought about a series of substantial changes for mobility on two wheels, especially if the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is considered as a relevant fact for transportation dynamics [1,2]. Social distancing recommendations have promoted the use of individual transportation systems instead of massive transportations means. Consequently, riding a bike for urban trips has become increasingly prevalent in many countries [3-5]. Besides an opportunity to make urban mobility more active and sustainable, this panorama poses the challenge to prevent that, along with its growing use, bicycle crashes ---and their consequences-might continue to increase. In this regard, recent studies have emphasized the role of individual differences and personality-related factors as potential issues influencing both cycling behaviors and traffic crashes suffered while riding [6,7]

Cross-culturally approaching the cycling behaviour questionnaire (CBQ) : Evidence from 19 countries

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Cross-culturally approaching cycling safety from a behavioural perspective : a study in 19 countries

While promoting urban cycling has shown to represent several benefits for public health, risky behaviours might endanger cycling safety outcomes and discourage people from shifting to active transportation. Therefore, examining the relationships among riding behaviour, safety, and country-based figures seems valuable for promoting a safer and sustainable development of urban cycling worldwide. For this study, 7,001 urban cyclists from 19 countries provided data on their mobility patterns, cycling behaviours and safety outcomes. The results show that positive behaviours are overall more prevalent than risky ones. However, behavioural patterns largely vary depending on riders' demographics and country-based indexes. It supports the idea that cycling behaviour remains a key contributor to cycling outcomes, as well as the need to fill many gaps endangering riding safety across many countries.Peer reviewe

Johdanto Understanding the trip making characteristics of car deficient households in Finland

In many households, there are more adults with a driving license than there are cars. These households can be considered car deficient. This research explores car deficient households in a Finnish context using data from the Finnish National Travel Survey. Using logistic regressions, the research sought to understand what variables predict if a respondent lives in a car deficient household and for respondents living in car deficient households, we sought to understand the variables the predict access to use a car as a driver. Gender, work status, age, family size, household income, and number of trips by mode and purpose were all found to predict who lives in a car deficient household. In car deficient households, gender was found to be the strongest predictor of having access to use the car. The findings support previous research and raise new topics for future study, including studying intra-household contracts and analysing the activities engaged in by car deficient households.In many households, there are more adults with a driving license than there are cars. These households can be considered car deficient. This research explores car deficient households in a Finnish context using data from the Finnish National Travel Survey. Using logistic regressions, the research sought to understand what variables predict if a respondent lives in a car deficient household and for respondents living in car deficient households, we sought to understand the variables the predict access to use a car as a driver. Gender, work status, age, family size, household income, and number of trips by mode and purpose were all found to predict who lives in a car deficient household. In car deficient households, gender was found to be the strongest predictor of having access to use the car. The findings support previous research and raise new topics for future study, including studying intra-household contracts and analysing the activities engaged in by car deficient households