Near real-time monitoring of clinical events detected in swine herds in Northeastern Spain

Novel techniques of data mining and time series analyses allow the development of new methods to analyze information relating to the health status of the swine population in near real-time. A swine health monitoring system based on the reporting of clinical events detected at farm level has been in operation in Northeastern Spain since 2012. This initiative was supported by swine stakeholders and veterinary practitioners of the Catalonia, Aragon, and Navarra regions. The system aims to evidence the occurrence of endemic diseases in near real-time by gathering data from practitioners that visited swine farms in these regions. Practitioners volunteered to report data on clinical events detected during their visits using a web application. The system allowed collection, transfer and storage of data on different clinical signs, analysis, and modeling of the diverse clinical events detected, and provision of reproducible reports with updated results. The information enables the industry to quantify the occurrence of endemic diseases on swine farms, better recognize their spatiotemporal distribution, determine factors that influence their presence and take more efficient prevention and control measures at region, county, and farm level. This study assesses the functionality of this monitoring tool by evaluating the target population coverage, the spatiotemporal patterns of clinical signs and presumptive diagnoses reported by practitioners over more than 6 years, and describes the information provided by this system in near real-time. Between January 2012 and March 2018, the system achieved a coverage of 33 of the 62 existing counties in the three study regions. Twenty-five percent of the target swine population farms reported one or more clinical events to the system. During the study period 10,654 clinical events comprising 14,971 clinical signs from 1,693 farms were reported. The most frequent clinical signs detected in these farms were respiratory, followed by digestive, neurological, locomotor, reproductive, and dermatological signs. Respiratory disorders were mainly associated with microorganisms of the porcine respiratory disease complex. Digestive signs were mainly related to colibacilosis and clostridiosis, neurological signs to Glässer's disease and streptococcosis, reproductive signs to PRRS, locomotor to streptococcosis and Glässer's disease, and dermatological signs to exudative epidermitis

Multidrug resistant Salmonella enterica isolated from conventional pig farms using antimicrobial agents in preventative medicine programmes

A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the presence of multidrug antimicrobial resistance (multi-AR) in Salmonella enterica in pigs reared under conventional preventative medicine programmes in Spain and the possible association of multi-AR with ceftiofur or tulathromycin treatment during the pre-weaning period. Groups of 7-day-old piglets were treated by intramuscular injection with ceftiofur on four farms (n = 40 piglets per farm) and with tulathromycin on another four farms (n = 40 piglets per farm). A control group of untreated piglets (n = 30 per farm) was present on each farm. Faecal swabs were collected for S. enterica culture prior to treatment, at 2, 7 and 180 days post-treatment, and at slaughter. Minimal inhibitory concentrations of 14 antimicrobial agents, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and detection of resistance genes representing five families of antimicrobial agents were performed. Plasmids carrying cephalosporin resistant (CR) genes were characterised. Sixty-six S. enterica isolates were recovered from five of eight farms. Forty-seven isolates were multi-AR and four contained blaCTX-M genes harboured in conjugative plasmids of the IncI1 family; three of these isolates were recovered before treatment with ceftiofur. The most frequent AR genes detected were tet(A) (51/66, 77%), sul1 (17/66, 26%); tet(B) (15/66, 23%) and qnrB (10/66,15%). A direct relation between the use of ceftiofur in these conditions and the occurrence of CR S. enterica was not established. However, multi-AR was common, especially for ampicillin, streptomycin, sulphonamides and tetracycline. These antibiotics are used frequently in veterinary medicine in Spain and, therefore, should be used sparingly to minimise the spread of multi-ARThis work was supported by project AGL2011-28836 from the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad of Spain, the Departamento de Innovación, Empresa y Empleo del Gobierno de Navarra (project reference IIQ14064.RI1) and Fundación Caja Navarra, Spain (project reference VATC 2014-0411 y VATC 2015-70628). Contract of LMG was supported by the Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA) and the European Social Fund. Contract of VG was supported by Fundación Caja Navarra, Spain (project reference VATC 2015-70628). We acknowledge the Centres de Recerca de Catalunya programme for financial support, and to John G. Wild for review of English

Usefulness of Eurasian Magpies (Pica pica) for West Nile virus Surveillance in Non-Endemic and Endemic Situations

Finançament: Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament d'Agricultura, Ramaderia, Pesca i Alimentació (DARP); Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca y Alimentación (MAPA).In September 2017, passive surveillance allowed the detection of West Nile virus (WNV) lineage 2 for the first time in northern Spain in a northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). However, a cross sectional study carried out in Eurasian magpies (Pica pica) in a nearby area evidenced that WNV had been circulating two months earlier. Therefore, active surveillance in Eurasian magpies proved its effectiveness for the early detection of WNV in a non-endemic area. Further surveys in 2018 and the beginning of 2019 using young magpies (i.e., born after 2017) showed the repeated circulation of WNV in the same region in the following transmission season. Therefore, active surveillance in Eurasian magpies as well proved to be useful for the detection of WNV circulation in areas that may be considered as endemic. In this manuscript we present the results of those studies and discuss reasons that make the Eurasian magpies an ideal species for the surveillance of WNV, both in endemic and non-endemic areas

Transmission of Similar Mcr-1 Carrying Plasmids among Different Escherichia coli Lineages Isolated from Livestock and the Farmer

Colistin use has mostly been stopped in human medicine, due to its toxicity. However, nowadays, it still is used as a last-resort antibiotic to treat hospital infections caused by multi-drug resistant Enterobacteriaceae. On the contrary, colistin has been used in veterinary medicine until recently. In this study, 210 fecal samples from pigs (n = 57), calves (n = 152), and the farmer (n = 1) were collected from a farm where E. coli harboring mcr-1-mcr-3 was previously detected. Samples were plated, and mcr-genes presence was confirmed by multiplex-PCR. Hybrid sequencing which determined the presence and location of mcr-1, other antibiotic resistance genes, and virulence factors. Eighteen colistin resistant isolates (13 from calves, four from pigs, and one from the farmer) contained mcr-1 associated with plasmids (IncX4, IncI2, and IncHI2), except for two that yielded mcr-1 in the chromosome. Similar plasmids were distributed in different E. coli lineages. Transmission of mcr-1 to the farmer most likely occurred by horizontal gene transfer from E. coli of calf origin, since plasmids were highly similar (99% coverage, 99.97% identity). Moreover, 33 virulence factors, including stx2 for Shiga toxin E. coli (STEC) were detected, highlighting the role of livestock as a reservoir of pathotypes with zoonotic potential

Quantitative assessment of the probability of bluetongue virus overwintering by horizontal transmission : application to Germany

Even though bluetongue virus (BTV) transmission is apparently interrupted during winter, bluetongue outbreaks often reappear in the next season (overwintering). Several mechanisms for BTV overwintering have been proposed, but to date, their relative importance remain unclear. In order to assess the probability of BTV overwintering by persistence in adult vectors, ruminants (through prolonged viraemia) or a combination of both, a quantitative risk assessment model was developed. Furthermore, the model allowed the role played by the residual number of vectors present during winter to be examined, and the effect of a proportion of Culicoides living inside buildings (endophilic behaviour) to be explored. The model was then applied to a real scenario: overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007. The results showed that the limited number of vectors active during winter seemed to allow the transmission of BTV during this period, and that while transmission was favoured by the endophilic behaviour of some Culicoides, its effect was limited. Even though transmission was possible, the likelihood of BTV overwintering by the mechanisms studied seemed too low to explain the observed re-emergence of the disease. Therefore, other overwintering mechanisms not considered in the model are likely to have played a significant role in BTV overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007

Risk factors associated with Streptococcus suis cases on pig farms in Spain

Altres ajuts: acords transformatius de la UABBackground: Streptococcus suis can cause meningitis, polyarthritis and acute death in piglets. However, the risk factors associated with S. suis infection remain incompletely understood. Therefore, a longitudinal study was carried out, in which six batches from two Spanish pig farms with S. suis problems were repeatedly examined to determine possible risk factors. Methods: A prospective case-control study was conducted, and potential risk factors were evaluated using mixed-effects logistic regression models. The explanatory variables included: (a) concomitant pathogens; (b) biomarkers associated with stress, inflammation and oxidative status; (c) farm environmental factors; and (d) parity and S. suis presence in sows. Three models were built to study the effect of these variables, including two to assess the risk factors involved in the subsequent development of disease. Results: Risk factors for S. suis-associated disease included porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus co-infection at weaning (odds ratio [OR] = 6.69), sow parity (OR = 0.71), haptoglobin level before weaning (OR = 1.01), relative humidity (OR = 1.11) and temperature (OR = 0.13). Limitations: Laboratory diagnosis was done at the batch level, with individual diagnosis based on clinical signs only. Conclusions: This study confirms the multifactorial nature of S. suis-associated disease, with both environmental factors and factors related to the host involved in disease development. Controlling these factors may, therefore, help prevent the appearance of disease

Detection of West Nile virus lineage 2 in North-Eastern Spain (Catalonia)

Funding: Departament d'Agricultura, Ramaderia, Pesca i Alimentació of the Generalitat de Catalunya; Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (MAPAMA)In September 2017, West Nile virus () lineage 2 was detected in Catalonia (Northern Spain) in northern goshawks by passive surveillance. The phylogenetic analyses showed that it was related to the Central/Southern European strains, evidencing lineage 2 spread to Western Europe. local transmission was later detected in bearded vultures housed at the Wildlife Recovery center where the goshawk was transferred to. Further studies, before the following period of high mosquito activity, indicated that had circulated intensively in poultry and horses but only surrounding of the area where the virus was detected. In other areas of Catalonia, circulation of flaviviruses different to was identified. Public Health investigations failed to detect infection in humans

A simple method to estimate the number of doses to include in a bank of vaccines. The case of Lumpy Skin Disease in France

A simple method to estimate the size of the vaccine bank needed to control an epidemic of an exotic infectious disease in case of introduction into a country is presented. The method was applied to the case of a Lumpy Skin disease (LSD) epidemic in France. The size of the stock of vaccines needed was calculated based on a series of simple equations that use some trigonometric functions and take into account the spread of the disease, the time required to obtain good vaccination coverage and the cattle density in the affected region. Assuming a 7-weeks period to vaccinate all the animals and a spread of the disease of 7.3 km/week, the vaccination of 740 716 cattle would be enough to control an epidemic of LSD in France in 90% of the simulations (608 196 cattle would cover 75% of the simulations). The results of this simple method were then validated using a dynamic simulation model, which served as reference for the calculation of the vaccine stock required. The differences between both models in different scenarios, related with the time needed to vaccinate the animals, ranged from 7% to 10.5% more vaccines using the simple method to cover 90% of the simulations, and from 9.0% to 13.8% for 75% of the simulations. The model is easy to use and may be adapted for the control of different diseases in different countries, just by using some simple formulas and few input data

Widespread Circulation of Flaviviruses in Horses and Birds in Northeastern Spain (Catalonia) between 2010 and 2019

The surveillance for West Nile virus (WNV) in Catalonia (northeastern Spain) has consistently detected flaviviruses not identified as WNV. With the aim of characterizing the flaviviruses circulating in Catalonia, serum samples from birds and horses collected between 2010 and 2019 and positive by panflavivirus competition ELISA (cELISA) were analyzed by microneutralization test (MNT) against different flaviviruses. A third of the samples tested were inconclusive by MNT, highlighting the limitations of current diagnostic techniques. Our results evidenced the widespread circulation of flaviviruses, in particular WNV, but also Usutu virus (USUV), and suggest that chicken and horses could serve as sentinels for both viruses. In several regions, WNV and USUV overlapped, but no significant geographical aggregation was observed. Bagaza virus (BAGV) was not detected in birds, while positivity to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was sporadically detected in horses although no endemic foci were observed. So far, no human infections by WNV, USUV, or TBEV have been reported in Catalonia. However, these zoonotic flaviviruses need to be kept under surveillance, ideally within a One Health framework

Reappraising the use of forearm rings for bat species

Altres ajuts: acords transformatius de la UABLong-term mark-recapture studies are essential for bat conservation. Over the last decades, millions of bats across Europe and America have been marked with forearm rings for this purpose. Although it is considered a cost-effective method compared to Passive Integrated Transponders (PIT) tags, direct injuries from using forearm rings have been reported since their very first use. Yet, their impact on bats' welfare has not been systematically evaluated and remains a highly controversial issue among the scientific community and policymakers. Here we assess the impact of forearm rings and PIT tags on the health of different bat species. We reviewed 12 years of the existing recapture data of free-ranging bats from NE Spain and evaluated the impact of both marking tools in a captive colony of Carollia perspicillata, by assessing the development of skin lesions and levels of cortisol metabolites in guano (CG) after marking. We report that 55.1 % (435/790) of the recaptured free-ranging bats with forearm rings presented skin lesions. All banded C. perspicillata (n = 22, 100 %) developed skin lesions, whereas none of the PIT-tagged (n = 21) presented lesions. Levels of CG were significantly higher after marking with forearm rings only for one group. Banded C. perspicillata exhibited discomfort-associated behaviours due to forearm rings. Under the "precautionary principle", we recommend the ban of forearm rings for all bat species until species-specific studies under controlled conditions are performed and approved by a legally constituted ethics committee. Consideration of other long-term marking tools is mandatory to align with global bat conservation strategies