Enhancement of Security in RFID using RSA Algorithm

A huge revolution has occurred in Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technologies during the past decades. More vendors are involved, and have invested in this technology, which promises wholesale changes across a broad spectrum of business activities. Currently, RFID systems are usually available in low, high, ultra-high, and microwave frequencies with passive, semi-passive (or semi-active) and active transponders or tags. Tags might be either Chipless, or contain a microchip with read only, or read and write memory. The component controlling communication in a RFID system is called a reader or interrogator, which can be stationary or portable depending on the application. In order for the tags to transmit their data, the tags must be in the reader’s field or interrogation zone, and receive the necessary energy (in form of radio waves) from the reader. Although promising, RFID is not without its challenges, which arise from both a technological and usage point of View (IT Pro, 2005).  A common concern with RFID is data security. Data Security is a key area in RFID usage, it determines wholly whether this technology will be adopted fully especially in this part of the world (Eastern and Central Africa) for business processes and automation. For this technology to be utilized fully and realized then the users of the system MUST be assured of their data’s security.People who use devices that carry personal financial information, such as credit card or other ID numbers, do not want others to access their accounts. These are significant security vulnerabilities in RFID. Some researchers have proposed schemes that would require tags to authenticate readers, thus transmitting information only to authorized readers.This research paper addresses the security challenge in RFID by proposing RSA algorithm as a viable solution to encrypt data over transmission and also authenticate the reader and the tags. Keywords: RFID, Security, authenticate, Data Security

Characterisation of species and diversity of Anopheles gambiae Keele Colony

Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto was recently reclassified as two species, An. coluzzii and An. gambiae s.s., in wild-caught mosquitoes, on the basis of the molecular form, denoted M or S, of a marker on the X chromosome. The An. gambiae Keele line is an outbred laboratory colony strain that was developed around 12 years ago by crosses between mosquitoes from 4 existing An. gambiae colonies. Laboratory colonies of mosquitoes often have limited genetic diversity because of small starting populations (founder effect) and subsequent fluctuations in colony size. Here we describe the characterisation of the chromosomal form(s) present in the Keele line, and investigate the diversity present in the colony using microsatellite markers on chromosome 3. We also characterise the large 2La inversion on chromosome 2. The results indicate that only the M-form of the chromosome X marker is present in the Keele colony, which was unexpected given that 3 of the 4 parent colonies were probably S-form. Levels of diversity were relatively high, as indicated by a mean number of microsatellite alleles of 6.25 across 4 microsatellites, in at least 25 mosquitoes. Both karyotypes of the inversion on chromosome 2 (2La/2L+a) were found to be present at approximately equal proportions. The Keele colony has a mixed M- and S-form origin, and in common with the PEST strain, we propose continuing to denote it as an An. gambiae s.s. line

The origin, genetics and dispersal of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in Kenya

Three sets of molecular markes were used to investigate the population genetics of three populations of Plasmodium falciparum from Kenya; Mwea (low transmission), Tiwi (moderate transmission) and Bondo (high transmission). One set of markers codes for polymorphic antigens while the other two are microsatellite markers; one set located in non coding regions of the genome while the other set is located in the regions flanking two genes whose products are targets of the antimalarial drug sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine (SP). A comparison of the effectiveness of antigen-coding and the unlinked microsatellite loci in differentiating recrudescence from reinfection revealed that both sets of markers are equally effective. The microsatellite loci however, revealed more alleles per population than the antigen-coding loci possibly due to their different mutation rates. An analysis of the three populations using the neutral microsatellite loci revealed high levels of diversity, lack of linkage disequilibrium and virtually no population substructuring (FST<0.008) in the Kenyan P. falciparum populations even with the geographical areas being as much as 800 km apart. This indicates a lot of gene flow among these populations a factor that can only be explained by movement of people between the areas studied. An analysis of the same samples from the three areas at the dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) and dihydropteroate synthase (dhps) gene loci that code for targets of the antimalarial drug SP revealed high prevalence of the multiply substituted alleles associated with SP resistance in the three regions. An analysis of ~17 kb regions flanking both sides dhfr reveal a strong selective sweep of the 108N/51I/59R triple mutation alleles associated with pyrimethamine resistance. The work presented also demonstrates that alleles of the dhfr gene, especially the triple mutant allele, isolated from the three different areas are closely related to one another and probably share a common and very recent ancestor. Most notable is the finding that dhfr triple mutants seem to be imported into the country through immigration from elsewhere. An equivalent region flanking the dhps gene also revealed a strong selective sweep of the 437G/540E double mutation allele associated with sulphadoxine resistance in two of the three sites. However, double mutation dhps alleles from Mwea revealed no selection at all. While the three populations reveal no geographic substructuring using the results of the unlinked microsatellite loci, they seem to be highly structured in their drug resistance patterns. While it would be expected that these populations would have the same prevalence of drug resistance mutations (due to the apparent panmixia), the Mwea population appears quite different in regard to selection for drug resistance-associted alleles. This is possibly due to the diet, other drug interactions or the hosts' genetics in this area. A simplistic model on the rate of spread of drug resistance in the three populations reveals that the selection for drug resistance alleles is faster in the lower transmission area of Mwea (selection coefficient, s = 0.26) and slowest in Bondo (s = 0.10) indicating selection for drug resistant alleles is favoured by low transmission. These observations have implications for malaria drug resistance surveillance programs due to the fact that if treatment failure spreads faster in low transmission areas where almost all the population has low immunity, malaria epidemics are bound to occur resulting in huge morbidity and mortality

Effects of Market Reforms on Irish Potato Price Volatility in Nyandarua District, Kenya

This paper evaluates the effects of market reform policies on the volatility of Irish potato prices in Kenya through an analysis of a 20 year monthly time series data set from Nyandarua district using an autoregressive econometric approach. The empirical results show that there has been a rise in Irish potato prices and lowering of price volatility after the implementation of market reform policies. The real prices exhibit seasonal variations around an upward trend with the prices being depressed during the harvesting period. The price risk premia is found to be negative revealing that the cost of carrying out Irish potato business declined, and farmers were better off with the implementation of the reforms. The collection and distribution of price information, storage of Irish potatoes during periods of glut, improvement in productivity and use of commodity exchange markets can help to reduce price volatility. Keywords: Price volatility, Market reforms, Autoregressive mode

Healthcare utilization by children with neurological impairments and disabilities in rural Kenya: a retrospective cohort study combined with secondary analysis of audit data

Background: There is a paucity of data on healthcare utilization by children with neurological impairments (NI) in sub-Saharan Africa. We determined the rate, risk factors, causes, and outcomes of hospital admission and utilization patterns for rehabilitative care among children with NI in a defined rural area in Kenya. Methods: We designed two sub-studies to address the primary objectives. Firstly, we retrospectively observed 251 children aged 6–9 years with NI and 2162 age-matched controls to determine the rate, causes and outcomes of hospitalization in a local referral hospital. The two cohorts were identified from an epidemiological survey conducted in 2015 in a defined geographical area. Secondly, we reviewed hospital records to characterize utilization patterns for rehabilitative care. Results: Thirty-four in-patient admissions occurred in 8503 person-years of observation (PYO), yielding a crude rate of 400 admissions per 100 000 PYO (95% confidence interval (Cl): 286–560). The risk of admission was similar between cases and controls (rate ratio=0.70, 95%CI: 0.10–2.30, p = 0.31). The presence of electricity in the household was associated with reduced odds of admission (odds ratio=0.32, 95% Cl: 0.10–0.90, p < 0.01). Seizures and malaria were the main causes of admission. We confirmed six (0.3%) deaths during the follow-up period. Over 93% of outpatient paediatric visits for rehabilitative care were related to cerebral palsy and intellectual developmental delay. Health education (87%), rehabilitative exercises (79%) and assistive technology (64%) were the most common interventions. Conclusions: Surprisingly, the risk of hospitalization was not different between children with NI and those without, possibly because those with severe NI who died before this follow-up were under seclusion and restraint in the community. Evidence-based and tailored rehabilitative interventions are urgently required based on the existing secondary data

New synchronization method for <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>

&lt;b&gt;Background&lt;/b&gt;: Plasmodium falciparum is usually asynchronous during in vitro culture. Although various synchronization methods are available, they are not able to narrow the range of ages of parasites. A newly developed method is described that allows synchronization of parasites to produce cultures with an age range as low as 30 minutes. &lt;b&gt;Methods&lt;/b&gt;: Trophozoites and schizonts are enriched using Plasmion. The enriched late stage parasites are immobilized as a monolayer onto plastic Petri dishes using concanavalin A. Uninfected erythrocytes are placed onto the monolayer for a limited time period, during which time schizonts on the monolayer rupture and the released merozoites invade the fresh erythrocytes. The overlay is then taken off into a culture flask, resulting in a highly synchronized population of parasites. &lt;b&gt;Results&lt;/b&gt;: Plasmion treatment results in a 10- to 13-fold enrichment of late stage parasites. The monolayer method results in highly synchronized cultures of parasites where invasion has occurred within a very limited time window, which can be as low as 30 minutes. The method is simple, requiring no specialized equipment and relatively cheap reagents. &lt;b&gt;Conclusions&lt;/b&gt;: The new method for parasite synchronization results in highly synchronized populations of parasites, which will be useful for studies of the parasite asexual cell cycle

Strengthening Referral Networks for Management of Hypertension Across the Health System (STRENGTHS) in western Kenya: a study protocol of a cluster randomized trial

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), yet treatment and control rates for hypertension are very low in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Lack of effective referral networks between different levels of the health system is one factor that threatens the ability to achieve adequate blood pressure control and prevent CVD-related morbidity. Health information technology and peer support are two strategies that have improved care coordination and clinical outcomes for other disease entities in other settings; however, their effectiveness and cost-effectiveness in strengthening referral networks to improve blood pressure control and reduce CVD risk in low-resource settings are unknown. METHODS/DESIGN: We will use the PRECEDE-PROCEED framework to conduct transdisciplinary implementation research, focused on strengthening referral networks for hypertension in western Kenya. We will conduct a baseline needs and contextual assessment using a mixed-methods approach, in order to inform a participatory, community-based design process to fully develop a contextually and culturally appropriate intervention model that combines health information technology and peer support. Subsequently, we will conduct a two-arm cluster randomized trial comparing 1) usual care for referrals vs 2) referral networks strengthened with our intervention. The primary outcome will be one-year change in systolic blood pressure. The key secondary clinical outcome will be CVD risk reduction, and the key secondary implementation outcomes will include referral process metrics such as referral appropriateness and completion rates. We will conduct a mediation analysis to evaluate the influence of changes in referral network characteristics on intervention outcomes, a moderation analysis to evaluate the influence of baseline referral network characteristics on the effectiveness of the intervention, as well as a process evaluation using the Saunders framework. Finally, we will analyze the incremental cost-effectiveness of the intervention relative to usual care, in terms of costs per unit decrease in systolic blood pressure, per percentage change in CVD risk score, and per disability-adjusted life year saved. DISCUSSION: This study will provide evidence for the implementation of innovative strategies for strengthening referral networks to improve hypertension control in LMICs. If effective, it has the potential to be a scalable model for health systems strengthening in other low-resource settings worldwide

Brief report: Validity and reliability of the Nigerian Autism Screening Questionnaire

Informant-report measures for screening symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are needed for low-resource settings if early identification is to be prioritized because early developmental concerns are likely to be expressed by parents and other caregivers. This paper describes the initial psychometric evaluation of the Nigeria Autism Screening Questionnaire (NASQ). Parents and other caregivers completed the NASQ on 12,311 children ages 1 to 18 in a Nigerian population sample as part of the World Bank National General Household Survey conducted in the country in 2016. Factor analyses indicated a parsimonious three-factor structure with social communication/interaction, repetitive sensory motor, and insistence on sameness dimensions. Measurement invariance was excellent across age and sex. Reliability of the subscales and total scale was good, and item response theory analyses indicated good measurement precision in the range from below average to high scores, crucial for screening, and tracking ASD symptoms. Studies with gold standard ASD diagnostic instruments and clinical confirmation are needed to evaluate screening and diagnostic accuracy. The NASQ appears to be a reliable instrument with a clear factor structure and potential for use in screening and tracking ASD symptoms in future Nigerian samples

Promotion of access to essential medicines for Non-Communicable Diseases: Practical implications of the UN Political Declaration

Access to medicines and vaccines to prevent and treat non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is unacceptably low worldwide. In the 2011 UN political declaration on the prevention and control of NCDs, heads of government made several commitments related to access to essential medicines, technologies, and vaccines for such diseases. 30 years of experience with policies for essential medicines and 10 years of scaling up of HIV treatment have provided the knowledge needed to address barriers to long-term effective treatment and prevention of NCDs. More medicines can be acquired within existing budgets with efficient selection, procurement, and use of generic medicines. Furthermore, low-income and middle-income countries need to increase mobilisation of domestic resources to cater for the many patients with NCDs who do not have access to treatment. Existing initiatives for HIV treatment offer useful lessons that can enhance access to pharmaceutical management of NCDs and improve adherence to long-term treatment of chronic illness; policy makers should also address unacceptable inequities in access to controlled opioid analgesics. In addition to off-patent medicines, governments can promote access to new and future on-patent medicinal products through coherent and equitable health and trade policies, particularly those for intellectual property. Frequent conflicts of interest need to be identified and managed, and indicators and targets for access to NCD medicines should be used to monitor progress. Only with these approaches can a difference be made to the lives of hundreds of millions of current and future patients with NCDs

Where Are the Newly Diagnosed HIV Positives in Kenya? Time to Consider Geo-Spatially Guided Targeting at a Finer Scale to Reach the “First 90”

Background: The UNAIDS 90-90-90 Fast-Track targets provide a framework for assessing coverage of HIV testing services (HTS) and awareness of HIV status – the “first 90.” In Kenya, the bulk of HIV testing targets are aligned to the five highest HIV-burden counties. However, we do not know if most of the new HIV diagnoses are in these five highest-burden counties or elsewhere. Methods: We analyzed facility-level HTS data in Kenya from 1 October 2015 to 30 September 2016 to assess the spatial distribution of newly diagnosed HIV-positives. We used the Moran's Index (Moran's I) to assess global and local spatial auto-correlation of newly diagnosed HIV-positive tests and Kulldorff spatial scan statistics to detect hotspots of newly diagnosed HIV-positive tests. For aggregated data, we used Kruskal-Wallis equality-of-populations non-parametric rank test to compare absolute numbers across classes. Results: Out of 4,021 HTS sites, 3,969 (98.7%) had geocodes available. Most facilities (3,034, 76.4%), were not spatially autocorrelated for the number of newly diagnosed HIV-positives. For the rest, clustering occurred as follows; 438 (11.0%) were HH, 66 (1.7%) HL, 275 (6.9%) LH, and 156 (3.9%) LL. Of the HH sites, 301 (68.7%) were in high HIV-burden counties. Over half of 123 clusters with a significantly high number of newly diagnosed HIV-infected persons, 73(59.3%) were not in the five highest HIV-burden counties. Clusters with a high number of newly diagnosed persons had twice the number of positives per 1,000,000 tests than clusters with lower numbers (29,856 vs. 14,172). Conclusions: Although high HIV-burden counties contain clusters of sites with a high number of newly diagnosed HIV-infected persons, we detected many such clusters in low-burden counties as well. To expand HTS where most needed and reach the “first 90” targets, geospatial analyses and mapping make it easier to identify and describe localized epidemic patterns in a spatially dispersed epidemic like Kenya's, and consequently, reorient and prioritize HTS strategies.publishedVersio