Intellectual Humility in Public Discussion

In this article, the authors analyze intellectual humility as a cognitive and a communicative virtue. Public discussions on controversial topics – religious and scientific debates included – are becoming an increasingly important part of social life. They are viewed as important for the future of democratic societies as political procedures traditionally associated with democracy. In order to make a public dialogue more beneficial for the society it is essential to understand what obstacles may arise in its way and what the possible strategies to overcome them are. One of such behavioral strategies is intellectual humility. Humility has a long history of being recognized as a virtue. The authors analyze its potential for contemporary societies, undertake etymological analysis and compare intellectual humility to other associated intellectual virtues and vices such as open-mindedness and intellectual hubris. The core point of this article is that prejudiced cognition is bound to become limited or outright false, whereas intellectually humble research and dialogue efforts lead to true understanding – both cognitive and interpersonal. Intellectual humility is perceived as an especially valuable asset for any researcher, administrator or public speaker.     Keywords: Intellectual humility, public dialogue, cognition, objectivity, intersubjectivity, science, religion, democracy, research ethics

Аналіз результативності австро-угорської та російської пропаганди на Південно-Західному фронті Першої світової війни

The article analyzes the impact of information war effectiveness as a key component of the armed conflict between the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires. In the article an analysis of materials that speaks for actions of Russian and Austro-Hungarian side is presented. The criteria of informational influence effectiveness are the following: the amount of propaganda produce; counter-propaganda measures; reaction of the authorities, population and target groups to hostile informational impact. Common and specific points are revealed in the actions of both empires in the course of information warfare. The most effective means of internal propaganda were posters and postcards. All kinds of text messages, such as leaflets, manifestos and proclamations are considered to be an effective type of external propaganda. In order to continue an information warfare propagandists had to study the audience. The scope of target groups is achieved by the amount of materials, but big quantity does not guarantee the result. The evaluation of propaganda effectiveness is extremely difficult. Human behavior is influenced by various factors: education, group and social values, instincts. Agitation may be only a special factor that provides the visible consequence of the decision taken earlier. The effectiveness of enemy propaganda can be estimated by the measures that were taken by the object of information warfare – civil and military authorities of the country. These measures varied – starting with censorship, reinterpretation of enemy communications in another perspective to the penalty for spreading enemy propaganda. In the beginning of the war the direct witnesses and participants of events celebrated the success of the official propaganda. The analysis of the sources of personal origin suggests that in most cases hostile propaganda was perceived as misleading because it is considered to be «foreign». Another specific measure to counteract enemy propaganda was redeployment of military units, whose loyalty and stability was questioned. «Slavic» regiments of the Austro-Hungarian army were sent to Italian front, the Russian units with Polish contingent were sent to the Caucasian front. The national question was widely used by both empires. «Slavic issue» of Russian propaganda has succeeded in the first stage of the war. However after the establishment of positional front, the Austro-Hungarian propaganda means were more effective. The findings received will deepen knowledge concerning the confrontation between the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires that occurred before and during the World War I.Статья посвящена проблемам оценки эффективности австро-венгерской и российской пропаганды времен Первой мировой войны. На основании результатов сравнительного анализа информационного противостояния между Российской и Австро-Венгерской империями, предложены следующие критерии оценки результативности: масштабы охвата аудитории, целевые группы и эффективность мероприятий контрпропаганды. Многообразие средств и приемов пропагандистского воздействия отражало техническое и общественно-политическое развитие стран того времени.Количество материалов, носивших идеологическую нагрузку, исчисляется сотнями тысяч. Основной формой пропаганды оставалась печатная продукция. Установлено, что уже в 1914 г. у военнослужащих на передовой сформировались определенные установки о противнике. Пропаганда выполнила свою задачу по формированию образа врага.Значительные успехи в информационном противостоянии в начале войны демонстрировала Россия. Этому способствовала идеология панславизма и военные победы на фронте. Причины большей эффективности пропагандистской деятельности Австро-Венгрии и Германии во второй половине войны можно объяснить, прежде всего, остротой внутреннего кризиса в Российской империи.Анализ материалов по исследуемой теме позволяет констатировать, что пропаганда получила статус мощного оружия межгосударственных противостояний в условиях Первой мировой войны.Розглянуто проблеми оцінювання ефективності австро-угорської та російської пропаганди часів Першої світової війни. На підставі результатів порівняльного аналізу інформаційного протистояння між Російською та Австро-Угорською імперіями запропоновано такі критерії оцінювання результативності: масштаби охоплення аудиторії, цільові групи та ефективність заходів контрпропаганди. Різноманіття засобів та прийомів пропагандистського впливу відображало тогочасний технічний та суспільно-політичний розвиток країн.Кількість матеріалів, що носила ідеологічне навантаження, обчислюється сотнями тисяч. Основною формою пропаганди залишалася друкована продукція. Встановлено, що вже в 1914 р. у військовослужбовців на передовій сформувалися певні настанови щодо супротивника. Пропаганда виконала своє завдання із формування образу ворога.Значні успіхи в інформаційному протистоянні на початку війни демонструвала Росія. Цьому сприяла ідеологія панславізму й військові перемоги на фронті. Причини більшої ефективності пропагандистської діяльності Австро-Угорщини та Німеччині в другій половині війни можна пояснити насамперед гостротою внутрішньої кризи в Російській імперії. Аналіз матеріалів з досліджуваної теми дозволяє констатувати, що пропаганда набула статусу потужної зброї міждержавних протистоянь в умовах Першої світової війни

Reduced isolation-induced pup ultrasonic communication in mouse pups lacking brain serotonin

BACKGROUND: Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a key modulatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) that plays an important role as a developmental signal. Several lines of evidence associate altered 5-HT signaling with psychopathology in humans, particularly neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). ASD are characterized by persistent social and communication deficits along with stereotyped and repetitive patterns of behavior, with all symptoms emerging early during development. METHODS: Here, we employed a mouse model devoid of brain 5-HT due to the lack of the gene encoding tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2), the initial and rate-limiting enzyme of 5-HT synthesis in the CNS. Tph2 null mutant (Tph2 (-/-) ) mice show normal prenatal development; however, they display for yet unknown reasons severe growth retardation during the first postnatal weeks. We investigated, therefore, whether Tph2 (-/-) mice display deficits in isolation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations (USV) as pups during early life. Isolation-induced USV are the most commonly studied behavioral measure to assess developmental delays and communication deficits in rodent models for ASD, particularly as they serve an important communicative function in coordinating mother-pup interactions. RESULTS: Tph2 (-/-) mouse pups displayed a clear deficit in the emission of isolation-induced USV, as compared to heterozygous and wildtype littermates, exactly during growth retardation onset, including reduced call numbers and deficits in call clustering and temporal organization. CONCLUSIONS: The ultrasonic communication impairment displayed by Tph2 (-/-) mouse pups is likely to result in a deficient mother-infant interaction, presumably contributing to their growth retardation phenotype, and represents a prominent feature relevant to ASD

Rodents and humans are able to detect the odour of L-Lactate.

This is the final version of the article. Available from PLoS via the DOI in this record.L-Lactate (LL) is an essential cellular metabolite which can be used to generate energy. In addition, accumulating evidence suggests that LL is used for inter-cellular signalling. Some LL-sensitive receptors have been identified but we recently proposed that there may be yet another unknown G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) sensitive to LL in the brain. Olfactory receptors (ORs) represent the largest family of GPCRs and some of them are expressed outside the olfactory system, including brain, making them interesting candidates for non-olfactory LL signalling. One of the "ectopically" expressed ORs, Olfr78 in mice (Olr59 in rats and OR51E2 in humans), reportedly can be activated by LL. This implies that both rodents and humans should be able to detect the LL odour. Surprisingly, this has never been demonstrated. Here we show that mice can detect the odour of LL in odour detection and habituation-dishabituation tasks, and discriminate it from peppermint and vanilla odours. Behaviour of the Olfr78 null mice and wildtype mice in odour detection task was not different, indicating that rodents are equipped with more than one LL-sensitive OR. Rats were also able to use the smell of LL as a cue in an odour-reward associative learning task. When presented to humans, more than 90% of participants detected a smell of LL in solution. Interestingly, LL was perceived differently than acetate or propionate-LL was preferentially reported as a pleasant sweet scent while acetate and propionate were perceived as repulsive sour/acid smells. Subjective perception of LL smell was different in men and women. Taken together, our data demonstrate that both rodents and humans are able to detect the odour of LL. Moreover, in mice, LL perception is not purely mediated by Olfr78. Discovery of further LL-sensitive OR might shed the light on their contribution to LL signalling in the body.This work was supported by BBSRC: BB/L019396/1, BB/K009192/1; and MRC MR/L020661/1. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Modernization of institutional environment of entrepreneurship in Russia for development of innovation initiative in small business structures

This article explores the structure of institutional environment of entrepreneurship in Russia and its influence on the development of small business structures that are involved in innovations. It sets out structural elements of institutional environment: institutions, instruments, and methods of regulation; besides, it defines main criteria of evaluation of the level of development in the sphere of innovative entrepreneurship. In order to improve innovative initiative of small business-structures, the article offers the mechanisms of improvement of institutional entrepreneurial environment.peer-reviewe

Increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein concentrations in mice lacking brain serotonin

The interplay between BDNF signaling and the serotonergic system remains incompletely understood. Using a highly sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we studied BDNF concentrations in hippocampus and cortex of two mouse models of altered serotonin signaling: tryptophan hydroxylase (Tph)2-deficient (Tph2 (-/-)) mice lacking brain serotonin and serotonin transporter (SERT)-deficient (SERT(-/-)) mice lacking serotonin re-uptake. Surprisingly, hippocampal BDNF was significantly elevated in Tph2 (-/-) mice, whereas no significant changes were observed in SERT(-/-) mice. Furthermore, BDNF levels were increased in the prefrontal cortex of Tph2 (-/-) but not of SERT(-/-) mice. Our results emphasize the interaction between serotonin signaling and BDNF. Complete lack of brain serotonin induces BDNF expression

Expression of Microbial Enzymes in Mammalian Astrocytes to Modulate Lactate Release

Astrocytes support and modulate neuronal activity through the release of L-lactate. The suggested roles of astrocytic lactate in the brain encompass an expanding range of vital functions, including central control of respiration and cardiovascular performance, learning, memory, executive behaviour and regulation of mood. Studying the effects of astrocytic lactate requires tools that limit the release of lactate selectively from astrocytes. Here, we report the validation in vitro of novel molecular constructs derived from enzymes originally found in bacteria, that when expressed in astrocytes, interfere with lactate handling. When lactate 2-monooxygenase derived from M. smegmatis was specifically expressed in astrocytes, it reduced intracellular lactate pools as well as lactate release upon stimulation. D-lactate dehydrogenase derived from L. bulgaricus diverts pyruvate towards D-lactate production and release by astrocytes, which may affect signalling properties of lactate in the brain. Together with lactate oxidase, which we have previously described, this set of transgenic tools can be employed to better understand astrocytic lactate release and its role in the regulation of neuronal activity in different behavioural contexts

Serotonin is required for exercise-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis

Voluntary wheel running has long been known to induce precursor cell proliferation in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rodents. However, mechanisms that couple activity with the promitotic effect are not yet fully understood. Using tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) 2 deficient (Tph2-deficient) mice that lack brain serotonin, we explored the relationship between serotonin signaling and exercise-induced neurogenesis. Surprisingly, Tph2-deficient mice exhibit normal baseline hippocampal neurogenesis but impaired activity-induced proliferation. Our data demonstrate that the proproliferative effect of running requires the release of central serotonin in young-adult and aged mice. Lack of brain serotonin further results in alterations at the stage of Sox2-positive precursor cells, suggesting physiological adaptations to changes in serotonin supply to maintain homeostasis in the neurogenic niche. We conclude that serotonin plays a direct and acute regulatory role in activity-dependent hippocampal neurogenesis. The understanding of exercise-induced neurogenesis might offer preventive but also therapeutic opportunities in depression and age-related cognitive decline

Glio- and neuroprotection by prosaposin is mediated by orphan G-protein coupled receptors GPR37L1 and GPR37

This is the author accepted manuscript. Available on open access from Wiley via the DOI in this recordDiscovery of neuroprotective pathways is one of the major priorities for neuroscience. Astrocytes are the natural neuroprotectors and it is likely that brain resilience can be enhanced by mobilising their protective potential. Among G-protein coupled receptors expressed by astrocytes, two highly related receptors, GPR37L1 and GPR37, are of particular interest. Previous studies suggested that these receptors are activated by a peptide Saposin C and its neuroactive fragments (such as prosaptide TX14), which were demonstrated to be neuroprotective in various animal models by several groups. However, pairing of Saposin C or prosaptides with GPR37L1/GPR37 has been challenged and presently GPR37L1/GPR37 have regained their orphan status. Here we demonstrate that in their natural habitat, astrocytes, these receptors mediate a range of effects of TX14, including protection from oxidative stress. The Saposin C/GPR37L1/GPR37 pathway is also involved in the neuroprotective effect of astrocytes on neurons subjected to oxidative stress. The action of TX14 is at least partially mediated by Gi-proteins and the cAMP-PKA axis. On the other hand, when recombinant GPR37L1 or GPR37 are expressed in HEK293 cells, they are not functional and do not respond to TX14, which explains unsuccessful attempts to confirm the ligand-receptor pairing. Therefore this study identifies GPR37L1/GPR37 as the receptors for TX14, and, by extension of Saposin C, and paves the way for the development of neuroprotective therapeutics acting via these receptors.Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilMedical Research Council (MRC

Exaggerated aggression and decreased anxiety in mice deficient in brain serotonin

Serotonin is a major neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). Dysregulation of serotonin transmission in the CNS is reported to be related to different psychiatric disorders in humans including depression, impulsive aggression and anxiety disorders. The most frequently prescribed antidepressants and anxiolytics target the serotonergic system. However, these drugs are not effective in 20–30% of cases. The causes of this failure as well as the molecular mechanisms involved in the origin of psychological disorders are poorly understood. Biosynthesis of serotonin in the CNS is initiated by tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2). In this study, we used Tph2-deficient (Tph2−/−) mice to evaluate the impact of serotonin depletion in the brain on mouse behavior. Tph2−/− mice exhibited increased depression-like behavior in the forced swim test but not in the tail suspension test. In addition, they showed decreased anxiety-like behavior in three different paradigms: elevated plus maze, marble burying and novelty-suppressed feeding tests. These phenotypes were accompanied by strong aggressiveness observed in the resident–intruder paradigm. Despite carrying only one copy of the gene, heterozygous Tph2+/− mice showed only 10% reduction in brain serotonin, which was not sufficient to modulate behavior in the tested paradigms. Our findings provide unequivocal evidence on the pivotal role of central serotonin in anxiety and aggression