Quaternary structure of a G-protein coupled receptor heterotetramer in complex with Gi and Gs

Background: G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), in the form of monomers or homodimers that bind heterotrimeric G proteins, are fundamental in the transfer of extracellular stimuli to intracellular signaling pathways. Different GPCRs may also interact to form heteromers that are novel signaling units. Despite the exponential growth in the number of solved GPCR crystal structures, the structural properties of heteromers remain unknown. Results: We used single-particle tracking experiments in cells expressing functional adenosine A1-A2A receptors fused to fluorescent proteins to show the loss of Brownian movement of the A1 receptor in the presence of the A2A receptor, and a preponderance of cell surface 2:2 receptor heteromers (dimer of dimers). Using computer modeling, aided by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays to monitor receptor homomerization and heteromerization and G-protein coupling, we predict the interacting interfaces and propose a quaternary structure of the GPCR tetramer in complex with two G proteins. Conclusions: The combination of results points to a molecular architecture formed by a rhombus-shaped heterotetramer, which is bound to two different interacting heterotrimeric G proteins (Gi and Gs). These novel results constitute an important advance in understanding the molecular intricacies involved in GPCR function

Einzelpartikelverfolgung ; Dynamik der Membranrezeptoren

Single-molecule microscopy is one of the decisive methodologies that allows one to clarify cellular signaling in both spatial and temporal dimentions by tracking with nanometer precision the diffusion of individual microscopic particles coupled to relevant biological molecules. Trajectory analysis not only enables determination of the mechanisms that drive and constrain the particles motion but also to reveal crucial information about the molecule interaction, mobility, stoichiometry, all existing subpopulations and unique functions of particular molecules. Efficacy of this technique depends on two problematic issues the usage of the proper fluorophore and the type of biochemical attachment of the fluorophore to a biomolecule. The goal of this study was to evolve a highly specific labeling method suitable for single molecule tracking, internalization and trafficking studies that would attain a calculable 1:1 fluorophore-to-receptor stoichiometry. A covalent attachment of quantum dots to transmembrane receptors was successfully achieved with a techinque that amalgamates acyl carrier protein (ACP) system as a comparatively small linker and coenzyme A (CoA)-functionalized quantum dots. The necessity of optimization of the quantum dot usage for more precise calculation of the membrane protein stoichiometries in larger assemblies led to the further study in which methods maximizing the number of signals and the tracking times of diverse QD types were examined. Next, the optimized techniques were applied to analyze behavior of interleukin-5 β-common chain receptor (IL-5Rβc) receptors that are endogenously expressed at low level on living differentiated eosinophil-like HL-60 cells. Obtained data disclosed that perused receptors form stable and higher order oligomers. Additionally, the mobility analysis based on increased in number (>10%) uninterrupted 1000-step trajectories revealed two patterns of confined motion. Thereupon methods were developed that allow both, determination of stoichiometries of cell surface protein complexes and the acquisition of long trajectories for mobility analysis. Sequentially, the aforementioned methods were used to scrutinize on the mobility, internalization and recycling dynamics characterization of a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs), the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR1) and several bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), a member of the TGF-beta superfamily of receptors. These receptors are two important representatives of two varied membrane receptor classes. BMPs activate SMAD- and non-SMAD pathways and as members of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) superfamily are entailed in the regulation of proliferation, differentiation, chemotaxis, and apoptosis. For effective ligand induced and ligand independent signaling, two types of transmembrane serine/threonine kinases, BMP type I and type II receptors (BMPRI and BMPRII, respectively) are engaged. Apparently, the lateral mobility profiles of BMPRI and BMPRII receptors differ markedly, which determinate specificity of the signal. Non-SMAD signaling and subsequent osteoblastic differentiation of precursor cells particularly necessitate the confinement of the BMP type I receptor, resulting in the conclusion that receptor lateral mobility is a dominative mechanism to modulate SMAD versus non-SMAD signaling during differentiation. Confined motion was also predominantly observed in the studies devoted to, entailed in the regulation of calcium homeostasis and in bone remodeling, the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR1), in which stimulation with five peptide ligands, specific fragments of PTH: hPTH(1–34), hPTHrP(107–111)NH2; PTH(1–14); PTH(1–28) G1R19, bPTH(3–34), first four belonging to PTH agonist group and the last to the antagonist one, were tested in the wide concentration range on living COS-1 and AD293 cells. Next to the mobility, defining the internalization and recycling rates of the PTHR1 receptor maintained in this investigation one of the crucial questions. Internalization, in general, allows to diminish the magnitude of the receptor-mediated G protein signals (desensitization), receptor resensitization via recycling, degradation (down-regulation), and coupling to other signaling pathways (e.g. MAP kinases). Determinants of the internalization process are one of the most addressed in recent studies as key factors for clearer understanding of the process and linking it with biological responses evoked by the signal transduction. The internalization of the PTH-receptor complex occurs via the clathrin-coated pit pathway involving β-arrestin2 and is initiated through the agonist occupancy of the PTHR1 leading to activation of adenylyl cyclase (via Gs), and phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cβ (via Gq). Taken together, this work embodies complex study of the interleukin-5 β-common chain receptor (IL-5Rβc) receptors, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and the parathyroid hormone receptor with the application of single-molecule microscopy with the newly attained ACP-quantum dot labeling method and standard techniques.Die Einzelmolekül-Mikroskopie, das Verfolgen der Diffusion einzelner, mikroskopischer Partikel, welche an relevanten biologischen Molekülen gekoppelt sind, ist eine der entscheidenden Verfahren zur räumlichen und zeitlichen Quantifizierung der Zellsignalisierung und hat eine Genauigkeit im Nanometerbereich. Die so gewonnene Trajektorienanalyse ermöglicht nicht nur die Bestimmung der Mechanismen, die der Bewegung der Partikel zugrunde liegen, sondern liefert auch wichtige Informationen über die molekulare Wechselwirkungen, Bewegungsfreiheit und Stöchiometrie sowie über alle existierenden Subpopulationen und besondere Funktionen der einzelnen Moleküle. Die Wirksamkeit dieser Technik hängt von der Verwendung des geeigneten Flurophors und der Art seiner biochemischen Anhaftung ab. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung eines hochspezifischen Markierungsverfahrens, das zur Verwendung der Einzelmolekül-Mikroskopie für Studien im Bereich Endozytose geeignet ist und gleichzeitig eine Fluorophore-Rezeptor Stöchiometrie von 1:1 erreicht. Eine kovalente Anhaftung von Quantenpunkten an Membranrezeptoren wurde erfolgreich in einer Methode realisiert, die ACP-Systeme (Engl. Acyl-Carrier-Protein) mit Koenzym A (CoA-) funktionalisierten Quantenpunkten amalgamiert. Die notwendige Optimierung der Verwendung von Quantenpunkten mit dem Ziel einer genaueren Berechnung der Stöchiometrie von Membranproteinen sehr großer Anzahl führte zu weiteren Studien. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden Methoden zur Maximierung der Signalanzahl und Beobachtungszeiten diverser Quantenpunktentypen untersucht. Im nächsten Schritt wurden die optimierten Verfahren angewendet, um das Verhalten von IL-5Rßc (Engl. Interleukin-5 ß-common chain receptor) Rezeptoren, die endogen auf niedriger Stufe auf lebende differenzierte eosinophile-ähnlichen HL-60 Zellen existieren, zu analysieren. Die gewonnenen Daten haben gezeigt, dass die Rezeptoren sich in stabilen Oligomeren hoher Ordnung bilden, was zusätzlich mit den Ergebnissen der Analyse der Mobilität, die auf einer hohen Anzahl unterbrochener 1000-Schritt Trajektorien basiert, zwei abgegrenzte Bewegungsmuster ergab. Daraufhin wurden Methoden entwickelt, die eine Bestimmung der Stöchiometrie von Zelloberflächen-Proteinkomplexen und die Erfassung umfangreicher Trajektorien zur Bewegungsanalyse ermöglichen. Im Weiteren wurden die zuvor genannten Methoden zur genauen Überprüfung der Mobilität, Endozytose und der Charakterisierung der rückläufigen Dynamik der repräsentativen Rezeptoren von zwei verschiedenen Membranrezeptoren Klassen, des Parathormon-Rezeptors (Engl. the parathyroid hormone receptor), der zu der G-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptor Gruppe (GPCRs) gehört und der Rezeptoren der knochenmorphogenetischen Proteine (BMPs) verwendet. BMPs aktivieren SMAD- und non-SMAD Signalkaskaden und als ein Bestandteil des TGF-β-Signalszstem sind sie in die Proliferation, die Differenyiation, die Chemotaxis und die Apoptose involviert. Zwei BMP Rezeptor Typen, BMP Typ I und BMP Typ II (BMPRI und BMPRII) sind nötig für die effektive Signalwirkung. Offenbar sind die Bewegungsmuster für BMPRI und BMPRII sehr unterschiedlich, was hier die Genauigkeit des Signals festlegt. Non-SMAD Kaskade und die nachfolgende Differenzierung von den Osteoblastenzellen benötigt das abgegrenzte Bewegungsmuster von BMPRI. Daraus folgert, dass die laterale Mobilität ein Hauptmechanismus in der SMAD gegen non-SMAD Signalwirkung während der Differenziation ist. Das abgegrenzte Bewegungsmuster war auch für den Parathormon Rezeptor (Engl. the parathyroid hormone receptor) (PTHR1), der in die Calcium Homeostase und den Knochenumbau involviert ist, in den Studien zu beobachten. In diesen Studien wurden fünf Peptide Ligande, spezifische Teile von dem PTH: hPTH(1–34), hPTHrP(107–111)NH2; PTH(1–14); PTH(1–28) G1R19, bPTH(3–34), von denen die ersten vier zu der Agonistengruppe und der Letzte zu der Antagonistengruppe gehören, in verschiedenen Konzentrationen mit lebenden COS-1 und AD293 Zellen verwendet. (oder aufgebracht) Eine der Hauptfragen war die Festlegung der Rate der PTHR1 Internalisierung und des Recycling in dieser Forschung. Im Allgemeinen reduziert Internalisierung die Stärke der Signale, die von den G Proteinen kommen und durch die Rezeptoren übermittelt (die Desensibilisierung) werden. Durch den Rücklauf werden die Rezeptoren wieder sensibilisiert, degradiert und können somit an anderen Signalkaskaden ankoppeln (zB. MAP-Kinase ). Die Determinanten der Internalisierung sind das Hauptthema in den aktuellen Studien, da sie der Schlüssel zum besseren Verständnis der Internalisierung und zu den nachfolgenden biologischen Antworten sind. Die Internalisierung von dem PTH Rezeptor verläuft entsprechend des Clathrin-coated Pit Weges mit der Teilnahme von β-arrestin2 und ist durch den Ligand eingeleitet, der zur Aktivierung von adenylyl cyclase (via Gs), und phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cβ (via Gq) führt. Zusammenfassend ist diese Arbeit unter Verwendung von Einzelmolekül-Mikroskopie mit der neuen ACP-Quantumpunktmethoden sowie standard Markierungsmethoden ein komplexes Studium über die IL-5Rßc Rezeptoren, die BMP Rezeptoren und den PTH Rezeptor

Dolichols of the fern Matteucia struthiopteris.

Dolichols isolated from leaves of the fern Matteucia struthiopteris were present as a mixture of prenologues composed of 14 up to 20 isoprene units with Dol-16 dominating. They comprised approximately 0.004% of the fresh weight of fresh plant tissue and were accompanied by traces of polyprenols (Pren-14 up to Pren-17, Pren-16 dominating). Their structure was confirmed by electropray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). This is the first time that dolichols have been reported as dominating polyisoprenoid alcohols in plant photosynthetic tissue

In vitro plant tissue cultures accumulate polyisoprenoid alcohols

In vitro cultivated plant cells and tissues were found to synthesize polyisoprenoids. Taxus baccata suspension cell cultures accumulated polyisoprenoids of the same pattern as the parental tissue; methyl jasmonate or chitosan treatment almost doubled their content. All the root cultures studied accumulated dolichols as predominant polyisoprenoids. Roots of Ocimum sanctum grown in vitro accumulated approx. 2.5-fold higher amount of dolichols than the roots of soil-grown plants. Dolichols dominated over polyprenols in all Triticum sp. tissues studied

Quaternary structure of a G-protein-coupled receptor heterotetramer in complex with Gi and Gs

Background G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), in the form of monomers or homodimers that bind heterotrimeric G proteins, are fundamental in the transfer of extracellular stimuli to intracellular signaling pathways. Different GPCRs may also interact to form heteromers that are novel signaling units. Despite the exponential growth in the number of solved GPCR crystal structures, the structural properties of heteromers remain unknown. Results We used single-particle tracking experiments in cells expressing functional adenosine A1-A2A receptors fused to fluorescent proteins to show the loss of Brownian movement of the A1 receptor in the presence of the A2A receptor, and a preponderance of cell surface 2:2 receptor heteromers (dimer of dimers). Using computer modeling, aided by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays to monitor receptor homomerization and heteromerization and G-protein coupling, we predict the interacting interfaces and propose a quaternary structure of the GPCR tetramer in complex with two G proteins. Conclusions The combination of results points to a molecular architecture formed by a rhombus-shaped heterotetramer, which is bound to two different interacting heterotrimeric G proteins (Gi and Gs). These novel results constitute an important advance in understanding the molecular intricacies involved in GPCR function

Additional file 3: Figure S3. of Quaternary structure of a G-protein-coupled receptor heterotetramer in complex with Gi and Gs

Controls of cAMP production and BRET assays in cells expressing minigenes and in cells expressing the ghrelin GHS1a receptor instead of one of the adenosine receptors. (A,B) cAMP determination in HEK-293T cells transfected with (A) 0.3 μg of cDNA corresponding to A1R or (B) with 0.2 μg of cDNA corresponding to A2AR with (control) or without 0.5 μg of cDNA corresponding to minigenes coding for peptides blocking either Gi or Gs binding. Cells were stimulated with the A1R agonist N6-Cyclopentyladenosine (CPA) (10 nM, red bars) in the presence of 0.5 μM forskolin (Fk) or with the A2AR agonist 4-[2-[[6-Amino-9-(N-ethyl-β-D-ribofuranuronamidosyl)-9H-purin-2-yl]amino]ethyl]benzenepropanoic acid hydrochloride (CGS-21680) (200 nM, blue bars). Values expressed as % of the forskolin-treated cells (CPA reduces forskolin-induced cAMP levels, red bars) or of the basal (CGS 21680 per se enhances cAMP levels, blue bars) are given as mean ± SD (n = 4–8). One-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni post - hoc test showed a significant effect of CPA when compared with that of forskolin (red bars, ***p < 0.001) or of CGS 21680 when compared to basal cAMP levels (blue bars, ## p < 0.01, ### p < 0.001). (C, D) BRET saturation curves were performed in HEK-293T cells transfected with (C) 0.3 μg cDNA coding for A1R-Rluc, increasing amounts of cDNA coding for A1R-YFP (0.1–1.5 μg cDNA), and 0.4 μg cDNA coding for GHS1a, or (D) with 0.2 μg of cDNA coding for A2AR-Rluc, increasing amounts of cDNA coding for A2AR-YFP (0.1–1.0 μg cDNA), and 0.5 μg cDNA coding for to GHS1a. Prior to BRET determination, cells were treated for 16 h with medium (black curves), with 10 ng/ml of pertussis toxin (green curves), or with 100 ng/ml of cholera toxin (red curves). mili BRET units (mBU) are given as the mean ± SD (n = 4–6 different experiments grouped as a function of the amount of BRET acceptor). (TIF 1418 kb

Additional file 8: Figure S8. of Quaternary structure of a G-protein-coupled receptor heterotetramer in complex with Gi and Gs

Evolution of TM4/5 and TM5/6 interfaces as devised from MD simulations of the adenosine A1R-A2AR heterotetramer in complex with Gi and Gs. (A) Representative snapshots (20 structures collected every 25 ns) of the TM domains of A1R bound to Gi (red), Gi-unbound A1R (orange), A2AR bound to Gs (dark green), and Gs-unbound A2AR (light green). TM helices 4 and 5 are highlighted in light blue and gray, respectively. Initial (at 0 ns, transparent cylinders) and final (at 500 ns, solid cylinders) snapshots of TM interfaces are shown for homodimerization (TM4/5, within rectangles) and heterodimerization (TM5/6, within a circle) bundles. TM helices 4 (light blue), 5 (gray), and 6 (orange and green) are highlighted. (B) Root-mean-square deviations (rmsd) on protein α-carbons of the four-helix bundles forming the TM5/6 interface (orange solid line), TM4/5 interface of A1R (blue dotted line), and TM4/5 interface of A2AR (blue solid line) throughout the MD simulation. (C) Contact maps of the TM4/5 interface (rectangles in panel A) in the A1R or A2AR homodimer (left and right panels) and of the TM5/6 interface (circle in panel A) in the A1R-A2AR heterodimer (middle panel). Darker dots show more frequent contacts. (D) Detailed view of the extensive network of hydrophobic interactions (mainly of aromatic side chains) within the TM4/5 (left and right panels) and TM5/6 (middle panel) interfaces. The amino acids are numbered following the generalized numbering scheme of Ballesteros and Weinstein [37, 38]. This allows easy comparison among residues in the 7TM segments of different receptors. (TIF 4004 kb