The social construction of near-death experiences

In this thesis I argue that the category Near-Death Experience (NDE) emerged in the late-twentieth century, and is structured by the discourses of 'Medicine' and 'Science', and the wider discursive factors of the 'Spiritual Marketplace'. Within NDE literature, the experiences of people coming out of their bodies in Operating Theatres, and then travelling to other realms, are considered to have parallels in the accounts of mystics, shamans, and religious visionaries of other cultures and other times. Against this, I argue that the category of the NDE does not "articulate the same field of discourse" (Foucault, 1969:24-25) as these other religious accounts. NDE researchers sift through these accounts in search of a common thread, but miss the wider social fabric of the religious narratives they seek to excavate, as well as the discursive location that structures their own research. In order to reposition this debate within its own history of ideas, I argue that the category "NDE" is itself dependent on the Operating Theatre for its emergence and initial appeal, and it is the Operating Theatre that makes the discourse of NDEs possible. Within the last 120 years, there have been many attempts to intersect science with anomalous experiences on the fringes of human consciousness: Psychical Research categorised deathbed visions in a wider schemata that was interested in how the fringes of the subconscious mind might yield evidence of another reality; contemporary Parapsychology looked at third-person accounts of deathbed visions recounted to Nurses and Doctors across the globe. Neither of these iscourses had the crossover into the wider 'public sphere' that Raymond Moody's book Life After Life (1975) did, a book that recounts first-person accounts of normal people, caught in extreme medical emergencies, who come out of their bodies, witness the medical teams' attempt to resuscitate them, visit a heavenly realm, and return to tell people about it. What is unique about the NDE is not the vision of a world after death, but the context in which this vision occurs. In Chapter 2 I explore that context by arguing that Psychical Researchers' investigation of mediums, apparitions, and deathbed visions sought to prove that posthumous existence of the Other (that is, one's relatives or friends who had passed on to the other side), and indirectly the Self. (Conversely, NDE research, seeks to prove the existence of the Self, and indirectly, the Other.) In Chapter 3 I examine how Medicine and the Modern Hospice Movement shaped the conditions of emergence of the category 'NDE'. The removal of 'death' from the public sphere into the private sphere of the West meant that death became something exotic. The idea that death was a defeat for modern medicine lead to the emergence of the modern Hospice movement, which opened up a space for the visions of those close to death to be recounted in the public sphere. The recounting of such experiences encapsulates a narrative that includes the Surgeon's intervention, the technology used in the Operating Theatre, and of the everyday man or woman talking about their visions, all of which gives these experiences a cultural currency that sets them apart from other religious and/or New Age accounts. In chapter 4 I recognise that, for these experiences to have an appeal, they must have a market to appeal to. Thus, I examine the 'Spiritual Marketplace', and argue that the NDE researchers fundamentally misread the appeal of their life after death accounts. NDE researchers felt that they had uncovered publicly verifiable evidence for life after death, which they expected to shake the foundations of Western society. Instead, these accounts were read as a curio in the privacy of the spiritual consumer's home, an interesting account that suggested death might not be the end of existence, but little else. When their vision of a spiritual revolution failed to materialise, the founders of the NDE movement fell into a bitter war about the precise signification of the category NDE, thus giving an indication of the fundamental indeterminacy of the category. In chapter 5 I explore how NDE research intersects with the discourse of "Science". I therefore examine the construction of science, the function of science, and the limits of science in NDE literature. I begin by examining how the narratives of science permeate NDE literature, and how all sides implicitly reinforce a binary of Science/Religion that emphasises the former as objective and neutral, and the latter as irrational belief. I then argue that, ultimately, NDEs happen at the very limits of human experience in a realm far outside of what can be answered by direct scientific observation; the debate tells us more about the different metaphysical presumptions present than it does about whether or not science can answer the question 'is there life after death?" In chapter 6 I argue that, in the discourse surrounding NDEs, death and mysticism become entwined as the 'exotic other'. I therefore examine how the categories 'death' and 'mysticism' are themselves both bound up in a particular web of signification. The NDE secures its own identity against an understanding of death born in clinical medicine and, latterly, Freudian psychoanalysis: death becomes a point, after which there is an unknown. Similarly, the NDE inherits an understanding of Mysticism that can be traced back to William James. Nevertheless, the understanding of 'death' throughout history is not fixed but fluid, depending on a myriad of cultural and social discourses. Similarly, the modern psychological definition of 'mysticism' as an ineffable, subjective experience is extremely narrow in comparison to the accounts of mystics in the Middle Ages. When the understanding of these two categories changes, the emphasis upon securing 'evidence' for life after death evaporates. This point is missed in contemporary NDE research that assumes that its own desire to find evidence of life after death is reflective of a universal need for humans to believe in religion: whilst NDE researchers believe that they have finally uncovered a window on to another world, I have argued that this is, in fact, a mirror of their own particular predilections and desires

Stability of trusses by graphic statics.

This paper presents a graphical method for determining the linearized stiffness and stability of prestressed trusses consisting of rigid bars connected at pinned joints and which possess kinematic freedoms. Key to the construction are the rectangular areas which combine the reciprocal form and force diagrams in the unified Maxwell-Minkowski diagram. The area of each such rectangle is the product of the bar tension and the bar length, and this corresponds to the rotational stiffness of the bar that arises due to the axial force that it carries. The prestress stability of any kinematic freedom may then be assessed using a weighted sum of these areas. The method is generalized to describe the out-of-plane stability of two-dimensional trusses, and to describe three-dimensional trusses in general. The paper also gives a graphical representation of the 'product forces' that were introduced by Pellegrino and Calladine to describe the prestress stability of trusses

The problem of polarization: An approach based on the writings of G.C. Berkouwer

This study is concerned with the problem of polarization. This problem is approached from a perspective developed from a detailed study of the writings of G. C. Berkouwer. Following an introductory preface which provides an overview of the entire study, Chapter One sets the problem of polarization in the context of Berkouwer's historical background - (1) the Reformation era(Calvin and Arminius); and (2) the post-Reformation development(pietism and scholasticism). Special emphasis is placed on Berkouwer's concern to avoid the twin pitfalls of objectivism and subjectivism. This emphasis is developed further in Chapter Two where the problem of polarization is viewed in relation to four of Berkouwer's central concerns - (1) the subject-abject dichotomy; (2) the nature of language; (3) the heteronomy-autonomy dilemma;- and (4) anthropology. Chapters Three to Five approach the problem of polarization from a perspective, developed in Chapter Three, which emphasizes the integral unity of the doctrine of revelation in its creational, incarnational, biblical, proclamatory and pneumatological aspects. Chapter Four contains a critical analysis of three theological tendencies which, in the author's view, tend to increase polarization because of a common tendency towards theological rationalism -(1) deism; (2) biblicism; (3) christomonism. Chapter Five contains a constructive approach to three intellectual disciplines in which the effects of polarization are often felt - (1) philosophy; (2) biblical criticism; and (3) science. Guided by the statement - The message of God's, grace is to be communicated by the church of Jesus Christ to the whole man Chapters Six to Eight discuss the problem of polarisation in relation to Christian communication. Chapter Six is concerned with the doctrine of grace, seeking to understand the concept of predestination in its 'pre' and 'destination' aspects with particular emphasis on the significance of the present proclamation. Chapter Seven is concerned with the doctrine of the church, focusing special attention on Berkouwer's approach to tensions within a single denomination, within Protestantism, between Protestantism and non-Reformed churches and between the church and the world. Chapter Eight is concerned with the doctrine of the whole man, drawing attention to the significance of apologetics and social concern within, the full context of the church's calling to communicate the gospel of grace to the whole man

Mechanisms of Actions of Drugs Which Alter Intraocular Pressure

The bovine perfused eye model has been validated as an inexpensive and convenient method for the assessment of the ability of drugs to lower intraocular pressure (IOP), free from the complicating effects of the cardiovascular system, the nervous system (including the CNS) and the presence of circulating hormones. This preparation also facilitates the comparison of drug effects on pressure with effects on the uveal vasculature, as well as rapid access to living tissue for biochemical analysis. Using this preparation, the ocular hypotensive effects of several beta-adrenoceptor antagonists have been demonstrated. The pressure lowering effect of the beta-adrenoceptor antagonists probably does not involve a classical beta-adrenoceptor or ciliary cyclic AMP as a signal transduction pathway, and is not dependent upon intact adrenergic innervation. The presence of a ciliary beta2-drenoceptor population positively coupled via Gg protein to a membrane channel is postulated. Atrial natriuretic factor (Atriopeptin - AP) and the nitrovasodilators sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and sodium azide, all of which are known to activate guanylate cyclase, also reduce IOP. Further, certain L-type Ca2+ channel antagonists and the channel agonist pinacidil reduce IOP in this preparation. A comparative investigation of the pressure lowering and vascular effects of certain of these drugs has been undertaken. It is concluded that the pressure lowering effect of these drugs cannot be an outcome of their vascular effects, but rather probably results from a direct effect on the ciliary epithelial cells. The bovine perfused eye may be the first isolated organ to be subjected to analysis of drug induced changes in regional blood flow using a labelled microsphere technique. The effects of these drugs on the uveal vasculature are varied and complex. Timolol at maximal ocular hypotensive dose was found to significantly reduce perfusion in the choroid, whereas at supramaximal dose it was found to significantly reduce perfusion in the iris. By contrast, a maximal ocular hypotensive dose of carteolol significantly reduced perfusion in the iris, ciliary body and choroid. Doses of SNP or verapamil which are known to reduce IOP in this preparation were found to significantly increase perfusion in the iris, ciliary body and choroid. Doses of AP or of sodium azide which are capable of producing submaximal decreases in IOP in the bovine perfused eye have been shown to produce a significant increase in ciliary cyclic GMP. It is concluded that ciliary cyclic GMP or Ca2+ may be involved in the control of IOP

Graphic Statics and Symmetry

Reciprocal diagrams are a geometric construction dating back to Maxwell and Cremona in which a self-stressed plane framework with a planar graph is paired with another self-stressed reciprocal framework on the dual graph. Either one of the reciprocal frameworks is the form diagram of a self-stressable structure and the other is the force diagram of the corresponding axial forces. This geometric technique offers insights into the self-stresses and infinitesimal motions (mechanisms) of both frameworks in the reciprocal pair. For a symmetric framework with a fully-symmetric self-stress, we obtain an equi-symmetric reciprocal pair of plane frameworks, as well as the associated symmetric discrete dual Airy stress function polyhedra. In this paper we exploit symmetry to refine the Maxwell–Cremona correspondence by considering the decomposition of the self-stress and motion spaces into invariant subspaces corresponding to the irreducible representations of the symmetry group. As such, the familiar relationship for the number of self-stresses of a framework, , and the number of mechanisms of the reciprocal, , is reworked into a symmetry adapted version which provides greater insights into the properties of the reciprocal framework pair. We also show how the quotient graph of a symmetric framework and its reciprocal can be used to efficiently detect infinitesimal motions, self-stresses and polyhedral liftings of different symmetry types. This allows for symmetry-adapted simplified structural analyses of symmetric structures

Two-dimensional Distributions and Column Densities of Gaseous Molecules in Protoplanetary Disks II

We have investigated the two-dimensional (R,Z) distribution of deuterated molecular species in circumstellar disks around young stellar objects. The abundance ratios between singly deuterated and normal molecules (``D/H ratios'') in disks evolve in a similar way as in molecular clouds. Fractionation is caused by rapid exchange reactions that are exothermic because of energy differences between deuterated and normal species. In the midplane region, where molecules are heavily depleted onto grain surfaces, the D/H ratios of gaseous molecules are higher than at larger heights. The D/H ratios for the vertical column densities of NH3, H2O, and HCO+ are sensitive to the temperature, and decrease significantly with decreasing radial distance for R < 300 AU. The analogous D/H ratios for CH4 and H2CO, on the other hand, are not very sensitive to the temperature in the range (T=10-50 K) we are concerned with, and do not decrease with decreasing R at R > 50 AU. The D/H column-density ratios also depend on disk mass. In a disk with a larger mass, the ratios of deuterated species to normal species are higher, because of heavier depletion of molecules onto grains. In the second part of the paper, we report molecular column densities for disks embedded in ambient cloud gas. Our results suggest that CN and HCO+ can be tracers of gaseous disks, especially if the central object is a strong X-ray source. Our results also suggest that the radial distributions of CN, C2H, HCN, and H2CO may vary among disks depending on the X-ray luminosity of the central star.Comment: 13 page

An Innovative Approach to Decreasing Concussions in Adolescent Female Soccer Athletes: 2370 Board #117 May 29, 9

Concussion is a public health issue, fundamental to health promotion and injury prevention. Concussions are prevalent in adolescent athletic competition, in high-collision and non-collision sports. A history of previous concussion increases risk by a factor of three, female gender increases it 1.5 to 2.5 times, and female middle-school soccer players have 22.9 times increased risk during games. Non-collision concussions (indirect) may be primed by altered movement patterns from previous injuries, disruption of cervical proprioception, or musculoskeletal pain. Assessment of dynamic balance and functional movement allows identification of poor movement patterns or control. PURPOSE: To assess a preventative movement-based warm-up routine designed to re-set aberrant afferent information from various systems (vestibular, somatic, ocular) for a cohort of high school female soccer players with prior concussions. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of convenience consisting of 17 Virginian high school female soccer athletes ages 15 to 18 during 2013-2014 season. Three players had suffered a concussion within the last 6 to 8 months. Athletes were assessed pre-season using the Lower Quarter Y-balance test (LQ-YBT) and the Functional Movement Screen (FMS). Cohort was instructed in a general warm-up placing emphasis on normalizing movement patterns (identified via the YBT and FMS), vestibular ocular reflex, and ACL-prevention exercises, which was performed during the entire season before practices and games. RESULTS: Sixteen varsity high school female soccer athletes, ages 14 to 18 years, participated. The average FMS composite score was 15±2, with 2 athletes being below the injury risk score of 14, and another 3 scoring right at the cutoff. The difference from side to side for the composite LQ-YBT ranged from 5 - 8cm. A total of 10 athletes had differences, with 6 of the athletes had an anterior difference of ≥4cm, and 6 had a posterior difference of ≥6cm. These levels are predictive of a deficit in dynamic balance. There were no new, or repeat concussions during the soccer season. CONCLUSIONS: The finding of no new or repeat concussions, suggests that the intervention may have helped and may indicate a new injury prevention paradigm

Stability of trusses by graphic statics

This paper presents a graphical method for determining the linearized stiffness and stability of prestressed trusses consisting of rigid bars connected at pinned joints and which possess kinematic freedoms. Key to the construction are the rectangular areas which combine the reciprocal form and force diagrams in the unified Maxwell–Minkowski diagram. The area of each such rectangle is the product of the bar tension and the bar length, and this corresponds to the rotational stiffness of the bar that arises due to the axial force that it carries. The prestress stability of any kinematic freedom may then be assessed using a weighted sum of these areas. The method is generalized to describe the out-of-plane stability of two-dimensional trusses, and to describe three-dimensional trusses in general. The paper also gives a graphical representation of the ‘product forces’ that were introduced by Pellegrino and Calladine to describe the prestress stability of trusses