Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common joint disorder, is associated with an increasing socioeconomic impact owing to the ageing population and mainly affects the diarthrodial joints. Primary OA results from a combination of risk factors, with increasing age and obesity being the most prominent. The concept of the pathophysiology is still evolving, from being viewed as cartilage-limited to a multifactorial disease that affects the whole joint. An intricate relationship between local and systemic factors modulates its clinical and structural presentations, leading to a common final pathway of joint destruction. Pharmacological treatments are mostly related to relief of symptoms and there is no disease-modifying OA drug (that is, treatment that will reduce symptoms in addition to slowing or stopping the disease progression) yet approved by the regulatory agencies. Identifying phenotypes of patients will enable the detection of the disease in its early stages as well as distinguish individuals who are at higher risk of progression, which in turn could be used to guide clinical decision making and allow more effective and specific therapeutic interventions to be designed. This Primer is an update on the progress made in the field of OA epidemiology, quality of life, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, screening, prevention and disease management

Studying kinetochore-fiber ultrastructure using correlative light-electron microscopy

Electron microscopy (EM) has dominated high-resolution cellular imaging for over 50 years thanks to its ability to resolve on a nanometer-scale intracellular structures such as the microtubules of the mitotic spindle. It is advantageous to view the cell of interest prior to processing the sample for EM. Correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) is a technique that allows one to visualize cells of interest by light microscopy (LM) before being transferred to EM for ultra-structural examination. Here we describe how CLEM can be applied as an effective tool to study the spindle apparatus of mitotic cells. This approach allows transfected cells of interest, in desirable stages of mitosis, to be followed from LM through to EM. CLEM has often been considered as a technically challenging and laborious technique. In this chapter we provide step-by-step pictorial guides that allow successful CLEM to be achieved. In addition we explain how it is possible to vary the sectioning plane, allowing spindles and microtubules to be analyzed from different angles, and the outputs that can be obtained from these methods when applied to the study of kinetochore fiber (K-fiber) ultrastructure