Phytochemical Characterization and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Combretum Collinum Fresen Leaves Extracts from Benin

Leaves from Combretum collinum Fresen (Combretaceae) are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory conditions, wound healing and bacterial infections in traditional West African medicine. This research focuses on the characterization of the phenolic profile and lipophilic compounds of leaves extracts of C. collinum. Studies of the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity were performed in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells and antibacterial activity was evaluated with agar well diffusion and microdilution assays. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays and compared to standards. The phytochemical studies confirmed myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside and myricetin-3-O-glucoside as major components of the leaves extracts, each contributing significantly to the antioxidant activity of the hydrophilic extracts. GC-MS analysis identified 19 substances that were confirmed by comparison with spectral library data and authentic standards. Combretum collinum aqueous leaves extract decreased pro-inflammatory mediators in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells. Further investigations showed that myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside has an anti-inflammatory effect on IL-8 secretion. In the antimicrobial screening, the largest inhibition zones were found against S. epidermidis, MRSA and S. aureus. MIC values resulted in 275.0 µg/mL for S. epidermidis and 385.5 µg/mL for MRSA. The in vitro anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activity supports topical use of C. collinum leaves extracts in traditional West African medicine

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Phenolic Compounds Isolated From Entada africana Guill. & Perr. Used in the Republic of Benin

In West African medicine, Entada africana Guill. & Perr. from the family of Fabaceae is used to treat inflammatory conditions in the management of fractures, wounds, and sprains in the northern region of the Republic of Benin. The aim of the present study was to isolate and elucidate phenolic compounds from a hydroalcoholic leaf extract from E. africana and to identify compounds with anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Eleven compounds were purified from three fractions, which have shown strong to medium anti-inflammatory activity. The isolated compounds were characterized by HRESI-MS and NMR methods as gallic acid (1), ethyl gallate (2), 5,7-dihydroxychromen-4-one (3), 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone (4), dihydrokaempferol-7-O-glucoside (5), catechin (6), quercetin-3-O-[β-apiosyl- (1‴→2″)-β-glucoside] (7), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (8), naringenin-7-O-glucoside (9), aromadendrin (10), and myricetin-3-O-glucoside (11). Nine of the major phenolic compounds were tested using TNF-α stimulated human keratinocytes (HaCaT) as skin inflammation model to identify molecules, which may explain the use of the plant leaves as an anti-inflammatory remedy by assessing the release of proinflammatory cytokines IL-8 and IL-6. The hydroacoholic leaf extract of E. africana exerted a medium inhibitory effect on the release of IL-8. 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone, aromadendrin, dihydrokaempferol-7- O-glucoside and ethyl gallate demonstrated a strong to medium effect on the release of IL-6. For the release of IL-8, 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone demonstrated a medium activity. This study provides for the first time a detailed screening of phenolic compounds occurring in the hydroethanolic leaf extract of E. africana. Additionally, it is shown that E. africana contains active compounds which may justify its traditional medicinal use as an antiinflammatory remedy to treat inflammatory and pain-related skin conditions in the Republic of Benin

A Novel Role of the L-Type Calcium Channel α1D Subunit as a Gatekeeper for Intracellular Zinc Signaling: Zinc Wave

Recent studies have shown that zinc ion (Zn) can behave as an intracellular signaling molecule. We previously demonstrated that mast cells stimulated through the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) rapidly release intracellular Zn from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and we named this phenomenon the “Zn wave”. However, the molecules responsible for releasing Zn and the roles of the Zn wave were elusive. Here we identified the pore-forming α1 subunit of the Cav1.3 (α1D) L-type calcium channel (LTCC) as the gatekeeper for the Zn wave. LTCC antagonists inhibited the Zn wave, and an agonist was sufficient to induce it. Notably, α1D was mainly localized to the ER rather than the plasma membrane in mast cells, and the Zn wave was impaired by α1D knockdown. We further found that the LTCC-mediated Zn wave positively controlled cytokine gene induction by enhancing the DNA-binding activity of NF- κB. Consistent with this finding, LTCC antagonists inhibited the cytokine-mediated delayed-type allergic reaction in mice without affecting the immediate-type allergic reaction. These findings indicated that the LTCC α1D subunit located on the ER membrane has a novel function as a gatekeeper for the Zn wave, which is involved in regulating NF-κB signaling and the delayed-type allergic reaction

State of the climate in 2018

In 2018, the dominant greenhouse gases released into Earth’s atmosphere—carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—continued their increase. The annual global average carbon dioxide concentration at Earth’s surface was 407.4 ± 0.1 ppm, the highest in the modern instrumental record and in ice core records dating back 800 000 years. Combined, greenhouse gases and several halogenated gases contribute just over 3 W m−2 to radiative forcing and represent a nearly 43% increase since 1990. Carbon dioxide is responsible for about 65% of this radiative forcing. With a weak La Niña in early 2018 transitioning to a weak El Niño by the year’s end, the global surface (land and ocean) temperature was the fourth highest on record, with only 2015 through 2017 being warmer. Several European countries reported record high annual temperatures. There were also more high, and fewer low, temperature extremes than in nearly all of the 68-year extremes record. Madagascar recorded a record daily temperature of 40.5°C in Morondava in March, while South Korea set its record high of 41.0°C in August in Hongcheon. Nawabshah, Pakistan, recorded its highest temperature of 50.2°C, which may be a new daily world record for April. Globally, the annual lower troposphere temperature was third to seventh highest, depending on the dataset analyzed. The lower stratospheric temperature was approximately fifth lowest. The 2018 Arctic land surface temperature was 1.2°C above the 1981–2010 average, tying for third highest in the 118-year record, following 2016 and 2017. June’s Arctic snow cover extent was almost half of what it was 35 years ago. Across Greenland, however, regional summer temperatures were generally below or near average. Additionally, a satellite survey of 47 glaciers in Greenland indicated a net increase in area for the first time since records began in 1999. Increasing permafrost temperatures were reported at most observation sites in the Arctic, with the overall increase of 0.1°–0.2°C between 2017 and 2018 being comparable to the highest rate of warming ever observed in the region. On 17 March, Arctic sea ice extent marked the second smallest annual maximum in the 38-year record, larger than only 2017. The minimum extent in 2018 was reached on 19 September and again on 23 September, tying 2008 and 2010 for the sixth lowest extent on record. The 23 September date tied 1997 as the latest sea ice minimum date on record. First-year ice now dominates the ice cover, comprising 77% of the March 2018 ice pack compared to 55% during the 1980s. Because thinner, younger ice is more vulnerable to melting out in summer, this shift in sea ice age has contributed to the decreasing trend in minimum ice extent. Regionally, Bering Sea ice extent was at record lows for almost the entire 2017/18 ice season. For the Antarctic continent as a whole, 2018 was warmer than average. On the highest points of the Antarctic Plateau, the automatic weather station Relay (74°S) broke or tied six monthly temperature records throughout the year, with August breaking its record by nearly 8°C. However, cool conditions in the western Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea sector contributed to a low melt season overall for 2017/18. High SSTs contributed to low summer sea ice extent in the Ross and Weddell Seas in 2018, underpinning the second lowest Antarctic summer minimum sea ice extent on record. Despite conducive conditions for its formation, the ozone hole at its maximum extent in September was near the 2000–18 mean, likely due to an ongoing slow decline in stratospheric chlorine monoxide concentration. Across the oceans, globally averaged SST decreased slightly since the record El Niño year of 2016 but was still far above the climatological mean. On average, SST is increasing at a rate of 0.10° ± 0.01°C decade−1 since 1950. The warming appeared largest in the tropical Indian Ocean and smallest in the North Pacific. The deeper ocean continues to warm year after year. For the seventh consecutive year, global annual mean sea level became the highest in the 26-year record, rising to 81 mm above the 1993 average. As anticipated in a warming climate, the hydrological cycle over the ocean is accelerating: dry regions are becoming drier and wet regions rainier. Closer to the equator, 95 named tropical storms were observed during 2018, well above the 1981–2010 average of 82. Eleven tropical cyclones reached Saffir–Simpson scale Category 5 intensity. North Atlantic Major Hurricane Michael’s landfall intensity of 140 kt was the fourth strongest for any continental U.S. hurricane landfall in the 168-year record. Michael caused more than 30 fatalities and $25 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages. In the western North Pacific, Super Typhoon Mangkhut led to 160 fatalities and$6 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages across the Philippines, Hong Kong, Macau, mainland China, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Tropical Storm Son-Tinh was responsible for 170 fatalities in Vietnam and Laos. Nearly all the islands of Micronesia experienced at least moderate impacts from various tropical cyclones. Across land, many areas around the globe received copious precipitation, notable at different time scales. Rodrigues and Réunion Island near southern Africa each reported their third wettest year on record. In Hawaii, 1262 mm precipitation at Waipā Gardens (Kauai) on 14–15 April set a new U.S. record for 24-h precipitation. In Brazil, the city of Belo Horizonte received nearly 75 mm of rain in just 20 minutes, nearly half its monthly average. Globally, fire activity during 2018 was the lowest since the start of the record in 1997, with a combined burned area of about 500 million hectares. This reinforced the long-term downward trend in fire emissions driven by changes in land use in frequently burning savannas. However, wildfires burned 3.5 million hectares across the United States, well above the 2000–10 average of 2.7 million hectares. Combined, U.S. wildfire damages for the 2017 and 2018 wildfire seasons exceeded $40 billion (U.S. dollars)

Investigations of the breakage behaviour of cristal materials in a spiral jet mill

Die Feinheit von Mahlprodukten, die durch Beanspruchung in einer Luftstrahlmühle erreicht wird, ist immer das Resultat von Zerkleinerungs- und Sichtungsprozessen in der Mahlkammer. Bei hohem Eintrag von Mahlenergie und unter dem Einfluss von großen Zentrifugalkräften in der Mahlkammer können feinste Mahlprodukte mit enger Korngrößenverteilung erzielt werden. Es ist jedoch nicht nur entscheidend, dass sehr feine, eng verteilte Mahlprodukte durch Luftstrahlmahlung geschaffen werden können. Mindestens genauso wichtig ist es, dass die Korngrößenverteilungen der Mahlprodukte reproduzierbar sind. Reproduzierbar sind die Mahlergebnisse allerdings nur dann, wenn die Abläufe in der Mahlkammer konstant gehalten werden können. Bevor Aussagen über den Mahlvorgang in der Luftstrahlmühle getroffen werden, muss eine Prozessvalidierung vorgenommen werden. Ansonsten sind keine Modellberechnungen, die einen Zusammenhang zwischen Mahleinstellungen und Korngrößenverteilungen von Mahlprodukten herstellen, möglich. Alle Untersuchungen zum Bruchverhalten von Mahlgütern wurden durchgeführt an einer Luftstrahlmühle vom Typ Fryma JMRS 80, die bereits von Rief [40] optimiert worden war. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass hohe Mahl- und Injektordrücke auch zu hohen Kammerdrücken im stationären Betriebszustand führen. Große Gutaufgaben pro Zeiteinheit und ein breiter Mahlspalt sind dagegen mit niedrigeren Kammerdrücken verbunden. Diese Ergebnisse stimmen gut mit bereits von Muschelknautz [38, 39] und Bauer [34] gewonnenen Erkenntnissen überein. Bei hohen Mahl- und Injektordrücken sind die Strömungsgeschwindigkeiten in der Mahlkammer und damit auch der Mahlkammerdruck relativ groß. Wird dabei jedoch viel Mahlgut pro Zeiteinheit zugeführt, kommt es zu einer starken Abbremsung der Strömung, da das zirkulierende Gas durch Übertragung von Energie auf die Partikel in der Mahlkammer selbst an kinetischer Energie verliert; der Druck in der Mahlkammer sinkt. Die Größe des Mahlspalts hat Einfluss auf den Kammerdruck, da sie bestimmt, wie groß der Unterdruck und damit der Sogeffekt über dem Tauchrohr ist. Ist der Mahlspalt breit, nimmt der Sog aus der Mahlkammer ab. In der Folge verweilt das Mahlgut länger in der Kammer; die Feststoffmenge in der Mahlkammer nimmt zu. Dadurch wird die Strömung in der Mahlkammer stark abgebremst, der Druck in der Kammer sinkt. Harte Stoffe von hoher Dichte und mit elastischem Materialverhalten führen zu niedrigeren Kammerdrücken im konstanten Betriebszustand als weiche Stoffe von niedriger Dichte und mit inelastischem Materialverhalten. Mit Hilfe von Korngrößenanalysen konnte gezeigt werden, welchen Einfluss einzelne operative Parameter auf die Feinheit der Mahlprodukte haben. Am Beispiel von Ascorbinsäure, Natriumascorbat, Lactose und Natriumchlorid wurde untersucht, wie sich die Förderrate, der Mahl- und Injektordruck und die Größe des Mahlspalts auf die Produktfeinheit auswirken. Ein Vergleich der verschieden Mahlgüter ermöglichte es, abzuschätzen, inwieweit sich mechanische Eigenschaften auf den Verlauf des Mahlprozesses auswirken. Mit zunehmender Gutaufgabe pro Zeiteinheit werden die Korngrößenverteilungen der Mahlprodukte breiter und hin zu größeren Korngrößen verschoben. Steigender Mahl- und Injektordruck und ein größer werdender Mahlspalt führen dagegen zu feineren und enger verteilten Mahlprodukten. Während Förderrate und Mahl- bzw. Injektordruck die absolut zur Zerkleinerung verfügbare Energie bestimmen, nimmt die Größe des Mahlspalts eher Einfluss auf die Beanspruchungsdauer der Mahlgutpartikel. Da bei breitem Mahlspalt der Unterdruck über dem Tauchrohr und damit der Sog aus der Mahlkammer reduziert wird, nimmt mit wachsendem Mahlspalt die Verweildauer der Mahlgutpartikel in der Mahlkammer zu; das gewonnene Mahlprodukt wird feiner und enger verteilt. Experimente ergaben, dass sich Ascorbinsäure am leichtesten zerkleinern lässt, gefolgt von Natriumascorbat, Natriumchlorid und zuletzt Lactose. Je kleiner das Elastizitätsmodul und je größer die Härte und die Dichte eines Mahlguts, desto energieaufwändiger ist die Zerkleinerung. Mit Erfolg konnten die operativen Parameter Förderrate, Mahldruck und Mahlspalt mit den charakteristischen Größen der Mahlproduktverteilungen korreliert werden. Ebenso gelang es, die Materialeigenschaften Härte, Elatizitätsmodul und Dichte in die Korrelation mit einzubeziehen. Für alle mathematischen Rechenansätze wurden Modelle zweiter Ordnung gewählt, da diese nicht zu kompliziert sind und dennoch den Prozess sehr gut beschreiben.It was the aim of this study to investigate the breaking behaviour of different materials a spiral jet mill Type Fryma JMRS 80 modified by Rief. It has been shown that high grinding and high particle feed pressures result in high pressures inside the milling chamber in the stationary state. In contrary a high feed rate and a wide slit width lead to a lower pressure. These results agree to those of Muschelknautz [38, 39] and Bauer [34]. High milling and high feed pressures are connected with a high flow velocity. In consequence the pressure inside the milling chamber increases. The flow velocity is reduced, if the material to be ground is transported into the milling chamber by high feed rates. Under these circumstances the concentration of solid material inside the milling chamber is high and the circulating gas is decelerated enormously. The slit width influences the pressure inside the milling chamber because it determines the size of the outlet of the mill. If there is a large slit width, the underpressure at the outlet is low. Therefore only finest particles leave the mill and the concentration of solid material inside the milling chamber is high. In consequence the flow velocity and the static pressure decrease. In order to investigate the influence of material properties, the pressures inside the milling chamber measured at constant slit width, feed rate, milling and feed pressure but at different materials are compared. The following trend was recognized: When soft and inelastic materials of low specific density are ground the pressure inside the milling chamber drops less than when hard and elastic materials of high specific density are ground. The pressure indicates the amount of energy input not spent by the acceleration and at least by the fragmentation of particles. The higher is the pressure inside the mill, the finer is the product. Then there rests a high amount of energy not necessary for the acceleration of the material that can be ground at low mechanical load. With decreasing feed rate and with increasing milling pressure the mean particle sizes of all mill products become smaller. In addition the size distributions become narrower. In contrary high feed rates and low milling pressures lead to coarse product sizes with wide particle size distributions. Feed rate, grinding and feed pressure determine the amount of energy per particle available for breakage processes, whereas the slit width determins, how long particles to be ground are stressed in the milling chamber. The slit width at the vortx finder determines the pressure drop inside the milling chamber as well as the underpressure in the vortex. A wide slit width results in a low underpressure and a low suction effect. In consequence the material can be stressed for a longer time and therefore only fine particles are discharged. These results confirm earlier findings [40]. As materials to be ground differ in their hardness, Young’s modulus and specific gravity it is expected that they differ in their breakage behaviour. Experimentally the following phenomenon could be shown: ascorbic acid can be ground best followed by sodium ascorbat, sodium chloride and lactose. Lactose is a very elastic material compared to the other three substances. Sodium chloride excels as a soft and brittle material, but it is characterised by a high specific gravity. Ascorbic acid and sodium ascorbat take an intermediate position. The material properties of these two substances differ only little. Ascobic acid is a bit more elastic but also a bit softer and of a lower density than sodium ascorbat. That means: To reach a certain particle size distribution hard and elastic materials of high density require enormous grinding energies compared with soft and inelastic materials of low density. Two approaches were made: First of all the operational parameters, namely the feed rate, the grinding pressure and the slit width, were correlated to the characteristic values of the particle size distributions of the mill products. With success even material properties such as hardness, elasticity and specific gravity could be included into the statistical calculations. The bases of all calculations are models of second order. Models of second order were chosen for two reasons: they are not too complicated and describe the grinding process quite exaclty. In order to describe the processes in the spiral jet mill by a smaller number of parameters, a second approach was made. In order to reduce the number of influencing parameters dimensionless characteristics were introduced. It was possible to connect the dimensionless charcteristics to a mathematical model of second order

Phytochemical Characterization and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Combretum Collinum Fresen Leaves Extracts from Benin

Leaves from Combretum collinum Fresen (Combretaceae) are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory conditions, wound healing and bacterial infections in traditional West African medicine. This research focuses on the characterization of the phenolic profile and lipophilic compounds of leaves extracts of C. collinum. Studies of the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity were performed in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells and antibacterial activity was evaluated with agar well diffusion and microdilution assays. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays and compared to standards. The phytochemical studies confirmed myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside and myricetin-3-O-glucoside as major components of the leaves extracts, each contributing significantly to the antioxidant activity of the hydrophilic extracts. GC-MS analysis identified 19 substances that were confirmed by comparison with spectral library data and authentic standards. Combretum collinum aqueous leaves extract decreased pro-inflammatory mediators in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells. Further investigations showed that myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside has an anti-inflammatory effect on IL-8 secretion. In the antimicrobial screening, the largest inhibition zones were found against S. epidermidis, MRSA and S. aureus. MIC values resulted in 275.0 µg/mL for S. epidermidis and 385.5 µg/mL for MRSA. The in vitro anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activity supports topical use of C. collinum leaves extracts in traditional West African medicine

Phytochemical Characterization and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Combretum Collinum Fresen Leaves Extracts from Benin

Leaves from Combretum collinum Fresen (Combretaceae) are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory conditions, wound healing and bacterial infections in traditional West African medicine. This research focuses on the characterization of the phenolic profile and lipophilic compounds of leaves extracts of C. collinum. Studies of the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity were performed in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells and antibacterial activity was evaluated with agar well diffusion and microdilution assays. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays and compared to standards. The phytochemical studies confirmed myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside and myricetin-3-O-glucoside as major components of the leaves extracts, each contributing significantly to the antioxidant activity of the hydrophilic extracts. GC-MS analysis identified 19 substances that were confirmed by comparison with spectral library data and authentic standards. Combretum collinum aqueous leaves extract decreased pro-inflammatory mediators in TNFα stimulated HaCaT cells. Further investigations showed that myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside has an anti-inflammatory effect on IL-8 secretion. In the antimicrobial screening, the largest inhibition zones were found against S. epidermidis, MRSA and S. aureus. MIC values resulted in 275.0 µg/mL for S. epidermidis and 385.5 µg/mL for MRSA. The in vitro anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activity supports topical use of C. collinum leaves extracts in traditional West African medicine