Transports and water masses in the fram strait and its vicinity from three decades of hydrographic observations in 1980-2010

The Arctic Ocean and its exchanges with the Nordic Seas influence the north-European climate. The Fram Strait with its 2600 m sill depth is the only deep passage between the Arctic Ocean and the other oceans. Not just all the deep water exchanges between the Arctic Ocean and the rest of the world's oceans take place through the Fram Strait, but also a significant amount of cold, low-saline surface waters and sea ice exit the Arctic Ocean through the strait. Correspondingly, part of the warm and saline Atlantic water flowing northward enters the Arctic Ocean through the Fram Strait bringing heat into the Arctic Ocean. The oceanic exchanges through the Fram Strait as well as the water mass properties and the changes they undergo in the Fram Strait and its vicinity are studied from three decades of ship-based hydrographic observations collected from 1980-2010. The transports are estimated from geostrophic velocities. The main section, comprised of hydrographic stations, is located zonally at about 79 °N. For a few years of the observed period it is possible to combine the 79 °N section with a more northern section, or with a meridional section at the Greenwich meridian, to form quasi-closed boxes and to apply conservation constraints on them in order to estimate the transports through the Fram strait as well as the recirculation in the strait. In a similar way, zonal hydrographic sections in the Fram Strait and along 75 °N crossing the Greenland Sea are combined to study the exchanges between the Nordic Seas and the Fram Strait. The transport estimates are adjusted with drift estimates based on Argo floats in the Greenland Sea. The mean net volume transports through the Fram Strait are averaged from the various approaches and range from less than 1 Sv to about 3 Sv. The heat loss to the atmosphere from the quasi-closed boxes both north and south of the Fram Strait section is estimated at about 10 TW. The net freshwater transport through the Fram Strait is estimated at 60-70 mSv southward. The insufficiently known northward transport of Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) originating in the Nordic Seas is estimated using 2002 Oden expedition data. At the time of data collection, excess sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) was available, a tracer that besides a background anthropogenic origin derives from a mixing experiment in the Greenland Sea in 1996. The excess SF6 can be used to distinguish AIW from the upper Polar Deep Water originating in the Arctic Ocean. It is estimated that 0.5 Sv of AIW enters the Arctic Ocean. The deep waters in the Nordic Seas and in the Arctic Ocean have become warmer and in the Greenland Sea also more saline during the three decades studied in this work. The temperature and salinity properties of the deep waters found in the Fram Strait from both Arctic Ocean and Greenland Sea origins have become similar and continue to do so. How these changes will affect the circulation patterns will be seen in the future

Structure and Transport of Atlantic Water North of Svalbard From Observations in Summer and Fall 2018

The transport of warm Atlantic Waters north of Svalbard is one of the major heat and salt sources to the Arctic Ocean. The circulation pathways and the associated heat transport influence the variability in the Arctic sea ice extent, the onset of freezing, and marine ecosystems. We present observations obtained from research cruises and an autonomous underwater glider mission in summer and fall 2018, to describe the hydrographic structure, volume transport, and circulation patterns of the warm Atlantic Water Boundary Current between 12°E and 24°E north of Svalbard. The Atlantic Water volume transport reaches a maximum of 3.0  ± 0.2 Sv in October, with an intraseasonal variability of 1 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s−1). During summer and late fall, we observed an Atlantic Water recirculation flowing westward (0.1–0.2 Sv) in the outer part of the section away from the shelf break. This counter current appears to be a part of an anticyclonic circulation in the Sofia Deep. The strength of the Atlantic Water recirculation and the Atlantic Water boundary current is very sensitive to the wind stress curl: The boundary current volume transport doubled in less than a week, corresponding to a transition from strongly negative (−10−6 N m−3) to strongly positive (10−6 N m−3) wind stress curl over the Sofia Deep. A previously unknown, deep bottom‐intensified current is observed to flow parallel to the boundary current, between the 1,500 and 2,000 m isobaths. Historical data in the region support the presence of the bottom‐intensified current.publishedVersio

Fram Strait and Greenland Sea transports, water masses, and water mass transformations 1999–2010 (and beyond)

The exchanges between the Nordic Seas and the Arctic Ocean are important for the ocean circulation and climate. Transports are here estimated using summer hydrographic data from the Greenland Sea and the Fram Strait. Geostrophic transports are computed from hydrographic sections at 75°N in the Greenland Sea and at about 79°N in the Fram Strait. Geostrophic velocities are adjusted with summer velocities derived from Argo floats, and four conservation constraints are applied to a box closed by the two sections. The estimated net volume transports are 0.8 ± 1.5 Sv southward. Net freshwater transports through the Greenland Sea section are estimated at 54 ± 20 mSv and through the Fram Strait section at 66 ± 9 mSv. Heat loss in the area between the two sections is estimated at 9 ± 12 TW. Convection depths in the Greenland Sea are estimated from observations and vary between about 200 and 2000 dbar showing no trend. Water mass properties in the Greenland Sea are affected both by convection and lateral mixing. Vertical mixing is estimated from hydrography and based on it about 1 Sv of diluted Arctic Ocean waters are estimated to enter the Greenland Sea. The properties of Atlantic, intermediate, and deep waters are studied. Deep water properties are defined using water mass triangles and are subject to decadal changes

An assessment of ten ocean reanalyses in the polar regions

Global and regional ocean and sea ice reanalysis products (ORAs) are increasingly used in polar research, but their quality remains to be systematically assessed. To address this, the Polar ORA Intercomparison Project (Polar ORA-IP) has been established following on from the ORA-IP project. Several aspects of ten selected ORAs in the Arctic and Antarctic were addressed by concentrating on comparing their mean states in terms of snow, sea ice, ocean transports and hydrography. Most polar diagnostics were carried out for the first time in such an extensive set of ORAs. For the multi-ORA mean state, we found that deviations from observations were typically smaller than individual ORA anomalies, often attributed to offsetting biases of individual ORAs. The ORA ensemble mean therefore appears to be a useful product and while knowing its main deficiencies and recognising its restrictions, it can be used to gain useful information on the physical state of the polar marine environment.Peer reviewe

Structure and Transport of Atlantic Water North of Svalbard From Observations in Summer and Fall 2018

The transport of warm Atlantic Waters north of Svalbard is one of the major heat and salt sources to the Arctic Ocean. The circulation pathways and the associated heat transport influence the variability in the Arctic sea ice extent, the onset of freezing, and marine ecosystems. We present observations obtained from research cruises and an autonomous underwater glider mission in summer and fall 2018, to describe the hydrographic structure, volume transport, and circulation patterns of the warm Atlantic Water Boundary Current between 12°E and 24°E north of Svalbard. The Atlantic Water volume transport reaches a maximum of 3.0  ± 0.2 Sv in October, with an intraseasonal variability of 1 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s−1). During summer and late fall, we observed an Atlantic Water recirculation flowing westward (0.1–0.2 Sv) in the outer part of the section away from the shelf break. This counter current appears to be a part of an anticyclonic circulation in the Sofia Deep. The strength of the Atlantic Water recirculation and the Atlantic Water boundary current is very sensitive to the wind stress curl: The boundary current volume transport doubled in less than a week, corresponding to a transition from strongly negative (−10−6 N m−3) to strongly positive (10−6 N m−3) wind stress curl over the Sofia Deep. A previously unknown, deep bottom‐intensified current is observed to flow parallel to the boundary current, between the 1,500 and 2,000 m isobaths. Historical data in the region support the presence of the bottom‐intensified current