The Contribution Professional Codes of Conducts on Secondary Education Teacher’s Professionalism: A Case of Bukoba District Council, Kagera Region, Tanzania

The main purpose of this study was to examine The Contribution of professional codes of conducts on secondary education teacher’s professionalism: A Case of Bukoba District Council, Kagera Region, Tanzania. The study was guided by deontological and utilitarianism theories. The research employed a mixed research approach under convergent parallel research design. The study used a population of 238 with the sample size of 149 comprising of 1 DSEO, 13 WEOs, 13 Head of Schools, and 122 Teachers. The sample was obtained by simple random sampling and purposive sampling technique, and data were gathered by using questionnaires and interview guide. What’s more, cronbach alpha coefficient approach was used to ensure the reliability of the instruments. Obtained finding were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 computer package. Data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics and the findings were presented by using frequency tables and pie-charts. Also, part of qualitative data wascodedand categorized by thematic analysis of which description were employed to present data in chapter four. The findings indicated that in teaching professionalism there is ethical and moral practice, moral development and moral values which are caused professional codes of conducts to teachers.In addition, it was found that professional codes of conducts raise the standards of teaching professionalism, brings about respect, integrity and obedience to laws. The study recommended that the government and other educational authorities to put more emphasize on the moral development to teachers because it is one of the important that contribute to ethical practice

Are we prepared for emerging and re-emerging diseases? Experience and lessons from epidemics occurred in Tanzania during the last five decades

This paper reviews preparedness for containing and controlling emerging and re-emerging diseases drawing lessons from disease events that occurred in animal and human populations in the last five decades (1961-2011). A comprehensive analysis based on retrieval and analysis of grey and published literature as well as reported cases was carried out to document type and trend of occurrence of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in different parts of Tanzania. Overall, the majority of diseases reported in the country were viral in nature followed by bacterial diseases. The trend for the occurrence shows a number of new emerging diseases as well as re-occurrence of old diseases in both animal (domestic and wild) and human populations. In humans, the major disease epidemics reported in the last five decades include cholera, influenza A H1N1, plague and rubella. In animals, the major epidemic diseases reported were Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Peste des petits ruminants and Giraffe Ear and Skin Diseases. Some epidemics have been reported in both human and animal populations including Rift Valley fever and anthrax.  The emergence of the ‘fit-for purpose’ approaches and technologies such as the discipline of One Health, use of participatory epidemiology and disease surveillance and mobile technologies offers opportunity for optimal use of limited resources to improve early detection, diagnosis and response to disease events and consequently reduced impact of such diseases in animal and human populations

Genetic Diversity in Banana and Plantains Cultivars from Eastern DRC and Tanzania Using SSR and Morphological Markers, Their Phylogenetic Classification and Principal Components Analyses

Bananas and plantains are edible and vegetatively propagated parthenocarpic species of the genus Musa. They are used as staple food, dessert and cash crop by more than hundred millions of people throughout the world. However, the crop is threatened by several pests and diseases in central and eastern Africa. One way of partly solving this problem is to have diploids which have desirable traits currently lacking in the AAA-Lujugira-Mutika subgroup. The study assessed through 21 microsatellite markers pairs the cladistic closeness of the diploid AA-Mshale accessions with AAA-Lujugira-Mutika with the purpose of inclusion in breeding programmes. Results showed that the eight studied accessions of AA-Mshale were different from each other. AA-Mshale malembo was fairly well established to be among the ancestor of Lujugira-Mutika, suggesting the determinism of its pollen viability and the level of resistance to pests for including in breeding programmes. The use of two pairs of microsatellites per chromosomes linkage group established the existence of alleles’ deletion, recombination or non-annealing. The closeness among AA-Mshale and AAA-subgroups (Ibota, Gros Michel and Green Red) so far established through other techniques was confirmed. The results recommend the use of microsatellite markers, covering 11 linkage groups for cultivar identification and diversity study

Sequence-based prediction for vaccine strain selection and identification of antigenic variability in foot-and-mouth disease virus

Identifying when past exposure to an infectious disease will protect against newly emerging strains is central to understanding the spread and the severity of epidemics, but the prediction of viral cross-protection remains an important unsolved problem. For foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) research in particular, improved methods for predicting this cross-protection are critical for predicting the severity of outbreaks within endemic settings where multiple serotypes and subtypes commonly co-circulate, as well as for deciding whether appropriate vaccine(s) exist and how much they could mitigate the effects of any outbreak. To identify antigenic relationships and their predictors, we used linear mixed effects models to account for variation in pairwise cross-neutralization titres using only viral sequences and structural data. We identified those substitutions in surface-exposed structural proteins that are correlates of loss of cross-reactivity. These allowed prediction of both the best vaccine match for any single virus and the breadth of coverage of new vaccine candidates from their capsid sequences as effectively as or better than serology. Sub-sequences chosen by the model-building process all contained sites that are known epitopes on other serotypes. Furthermore, for the SAT1 serotype, for which epitopes have never previously been identified, we provide strong evidence - by controlling for phylogenetic structure - for the presence of three epitopes across a panel of viruses and quantify the relative significance of some individual residues in determining cross-neutralization. Identifying and quantifying the importance of sites that predict viral strain cross-reactivity not just for single viruses but across entire serotypes can help in the design of vaccines with better targeting and broader coverage. These techniques can be generalized to any infectious agents where cross-reactivity assays have been carried out. As the parameterization uses pre-existing datasets, this approach quickly and cheaply increases both our understanding of antigenic relationships and our power to control disease

A socio-economic approach to One Health policy research in southern Africa

One-health approaches have started being applied to health systems in some countries in controlling infectious diseases in order to reduce the burden of disease in humans, livestock and wild animals collaboratively. However, one wonders whether the problem of lingering and emerging zoonoses is more affected by health policies, low application of one-health approaches, or other factors. As part of efforts to answer this question, the Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance (SACIDS) smart partnership of human health, animal health and socio-economic experts published, in April 2011, a conceptual framework to support One Health research for policy on emerging zoonoses. The main objective of this paper was to identify which factors really affect the burden of disease and how the burden could affect socio-economic well-being. Amongst other issues, the review of literature shows that the occurrence of infectious diseases in humans and animals is driven by many factors, the most important ones being the causative agents (viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc.) and the mediator conditions (social, cultural, economic or climatic) which facilitate the infection to occur and hold. Literature also shows that in many countries there is little collaboration between medical and veterinary services despite the shared underlying science and the increasing infectious disease threat. In view of these findings, a research to inform health policy must walk on two legs: a natural sciences leg and a social sciences one

"My Children and I Will no Longer Suffer from Malaria": A Qualitative Study of the Acceptance and Rejection of Indoor Residual Spraying to Prevent Malaria in Tanzania.

The objective of this study was to identify attitudes and misconceptions related to acceptance or refusal of indoor residual spraying (IRS) in Tanzania for both the general population and among certain groups (e.g., farmers, fishermen, community leaders, and women). This study was a series of qualitative, semi-structured, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions conducted from October 2010 to March 2011 on Mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar. Three groups of participants were targeted: acceptors of IRS (those who have already had their homes sprayed), refusers (those whose communities have been sprayed, but refused to have their individual home sprayed), and those whose houses were about to be sprayed as part of IRS scale-up. Interviews were also conducted with farmers, fishermen, women, community leaders and members of non-government organizations responsible for community mobilization around IRS. Results showed refusers are a very small percentage of the population. They tend to be more knowledgeable people such as teachers, drivers, extension workers, and other civil servants who do not simply follow the orders of the local government or the sprayers, but are skeptical about the process until they see true results. Refusal took three forms: 1) refusing partially until thorough explanation is provided; 2) accepting spray to be done in a few rooms only; and 3) refusing outright. In most of the refusal interviews, refusers justified why their houses were not sprayed, often without admitting that they had refused. Reasons for refusal included initial ignorance about the reasons for IRS, uncertainty about its effectiveness, increased prevalence of other insects, potential physical side effects, odour, rumours about the chemical affecting fertility, embarrassment about moving poor quality possessions out of the house, and belief that the spray was politically motivated. To increase IRS acceptance, participants recommended more emphasis on providing thorough public education, ensuring the sprayers themselves are more knowledgeable about IRS, and asking that community leaders encourage participation by their constituents rather than threatening punishment for noncompliance. While there are several rumours and misconceptions concerning IRS in Tanzania, acceptance is very high and continues to increase as positive results become apparent

Genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated from tuberculosis patients in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania

SummaryThis study was part of a larger cross-sectional survey that was evaluating tuberculosis (TB) infection in humans, livestock and wildlife in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania. The study aimed at evaluating the genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from TB patients attending health facilities in the Serengeti ecosystem. DNA was extracted from 214 sputum cultures obtained from consecutively enrolled newly diagnosed untreated TB patients aged ≥18 years. Spacer oligonucleotide typing (spoligotyping) and Mycobacterium Interspersed Repetitive Units and Variable Number Tandem Repeat (MIRU-VNTR) were used to genotype M. tuberculosis to establish the circulating lineages. Of the214 M. tuberculosis isolates genotyped, 55 (25.7%) belonged to the Central Asian (CAS) family, 52 (24.3%) were T family (an ill-defined family), 38 (17.8%) belonged to the Latin American Mediterranean (LAM) family, 25 (11.7%) to the East-African Indian (EAI) family, 25 (11.7%) comprised of different unassigned (‘Serengeti’) strain families, while 8 (3.7%) belonged to the Beijing family. A minority group that included Haarlem, X, U and S altogether accounted for 11 (5.2%) of all genotypes. MIRU-VNTR typing produced diverse patterns within and between families indicative of unlinked transmission chains. We conclude that, in the Serengeti ecosystem only a few successful families predominate namely CAS, T, LAM and EAI families. Other types found in lower prevalence are Beijing, Haarlem, X, S and MANU. The Haarlem, EAI_Somalia, LAM3 and S/convergent and X2 subfamilies found in this study were not reported in previous studies in Tanzania

Exploring local knowledge and perceptions on zoonoses among pastoralists in northern and eastern Tanzania

Background: Zoonoses account for the most commonly reported emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is limited knowledge on how pastoral communities perceive zoonoses in relation to their livelihoods, culture and their wider ecology. This study was carried out to explore local knowledge and perceptions on zoonoses among pastoralists in Tanzania. Methodology and principal findings: This study involved pastoralists in Ngorongoro district in northern Tanzania and Kibaha and Bagamoyo districts in eastern Tanzania. Qualitative methods of focus group discussions, participatory epidemiology and interviews were used. A total of 223 people were involved in the study. Among the pastoralists, there was no specific term in their local language that describes zoonosis. Pastoralists from northern Tanzania possessed a higher understanding on the existence of a number of zoonoses than their eastern districts' counterparts. Understanding of zoonoses could be categorized into two broad groups: a local syndromic framework, whereby specific symptoms of a particular illness in humans concurred with symptoms in animals, and the biomedical framework, where a case definition is supported by diagnostic tests. Some pastoralists understand the possibility of some infections that could cross over to humans from animals but harm from these are generally tolerated and are not considered as threats. A number of social and cultural practices aimed at maintaining specific cultural functions including social cohesion and rites of passage involve animal products, which present zoonotic risk. Conclusions: These findings show how zoonoses are locally understood, and how epidemiology and biomedicine are shaping pastoralists perceptions to zoonoses. Evidence is needed to understand better the true burden and impact of zoonoses in these communities. More studies are needed that seek to clarify the common understanding of zoonoses that could be used to guide effective and locally relevant interventions. Such studies should consider in their approaches the pastoralists' wider social, cultural and economic set up

Perfil da resposta imune humoral de bovinos após a revacinação com vacina anti-rábica inativada, preparada em células BHK contendo Hidróxido de Alumínio

The phenomenon of "in vivo" blocking effect of antigen, due to the presence of rabies specific neutralizing antibodies in previously vaccinated cattle, and its possible interference on the humoral immunologic response to revaccination was investigated in five zebu-crossbred bovines reared in field condition. The secondary vaccination was performed 180 days from the first immunization, using a commercial inactivated rabies vaccine prepared in BHK-21 cells. Serum samples were taken sequentially after each vaccine administration at intervals of 0 (zero), 24 and 72 hours, and after 7 and 14 days for the determination of neutralizing antibodies. The mean neutralizing antibody titer determined for sera taken immediately before the first vaccination was < 1:5, at 24 and 72 hours post-vaccination, < 1:6.25; the mean value found at 7 days post-vaccination was 1:144 ± 51;and 1:3,460 ± 1,329, at 14 days post-vaccination with mean titer of 1:58 ± 14; 24 hours after revaccination the mean titer was 1:129 ± 80, raising forwardly to1:277 ± 161, at 72 hours post-revaccination, and increasing levels > 1:6,400 and > 1:25,600 were found at 7 and 14 days post-revaccination, evidenciating a full anamnestic response. The blocking effect of antigen and the consequent fall in antibody levels shortly after the revaccination was not observed.O fenômeno do consumo de antígeno, devido apresentação de anticorpos neutralizantes específicos para a raiva, em bovinos previamente vacinados e a sua possível interferência na resposta imunológica humoral, decorrente de revacinação, foi investigado em cinco bovinos mestiços azebuados, criados em condições de campo. A revacinação foi realizada 180 dias após a primeira aplicação, utilizando uma vacina comercial inativada, preparada em células BHK-21. As amostras de soros foram obtidas em intervalos sequenciais de 0 (zero), 24 , 72 horas, sete e 14 dias, em cada vacinação e foram submetidas à prova de neutralização em camundongos para a pesquisa de anticorpos. O título médio de anticorpos neutralizantes, encontrado para o momento imediatamente antes da primeira vacinação foi < 1:5, 24 e 72 horas após a vacinação foi < 1:6, 25; no sétimo dia pós-vacinação o valor médio foi de 1:144 ± 51; aos 14 dias pós-vacinação, 1:3.460 ± 1.329. Todos os animais apresentaram títulos detectáveis no 180ª dia pós-vacinação, com um valor médio de 1:58 ± 14; no entanto, 24 horas após a dose revacinante, foi detectado um valor médio de 1:129 ± 80, ascendendo para 1:277 ± 161 no 3 S dia pós-vacinação, e níveis crescentes no 7 ! e no 14! pós-vacinação, com valores, respectivamente, superiores a 1:6.400 e1:25.600, indicando o estabelecimento de uma resposta anamnéstica plena. Não foi observado o efeito do consumo do antígeno e a consequente diminuição nos títulos de anticorpos, imediatamente após a revacinação