The Effect of Magnetized Saline Water on Yield and Yield Components of Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa cv. Silva)

Introduction Considering the value of water in agriculture and the limitation of this important and vital resource and the existence of intermittent droughts in the country, saving in consumption and optimal use of available water seems necessary. Today, utilizing saltwater is considered one of the practical and effective approaches to minimize water consumption while achieving acceptable economic performance. Given the scarcity of freshwater sources, the utilization of unconventional water for strawberry cultivation holds significant economic importance. Through the application of innovative technologies, such as magnetic technology, the modification of these water sources can lead to increased quantitative and qualitative yields of agricultural products. Salinity stress, which alters the water and nutrient absorption patterns, directly impacts the plant's yield in terms of both quantity and quality. Strawberry is an important commercial product, and the quantitative and qualitative increase of its yield is emphasized from different aspects. The purpose of this research is to the effect of salinity stress under the influence of a magnetic field on the yield and yield components of the strawberry plant. Materials and Methods The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of salinity stress under the influence of magnetic fields on the yield and yield components of strawberry plants. The factorial experiment was conducted in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2021 and 2022 in Neka city. The control treatment included full irrigation in all stages of plant growth with normal water (non-magnetic). The treatments include the type of irrigation water at two levels (Non-Magnetic Water (W1) and Magnetic Water (W2)), and water salinity was at three levels (0.86 dS/m (S1), 20 mM sodium chloride (S2), and 40 mM sodium chloride (S3). The strawberry plant of the Silva cultivar was cultivated in 3 x 4-meter plots with a row spacing of 40 cm and a between the spacing of 40 cm. Magnetization of irrigation water was created by passing water through a permanent magnet with a magnetic field intensity of 0.3 Tesla. The salt used for salinity stress was laboratory sodium chloride. The used irrigation method was drip (tape), and the amount of irrigation water and irrigation cycle was done according to the needs of the plant. Soil moisture monitoring was used to calculate the amount of applied water. Results and Discussion The results of analysis of variance showed that the effect of the irrigation water type and different levels of water salinity on the length, diameter, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, biomass and plant yield was significant at the 1% probability level. The effect of water salinity on the number of fruits per plant was significant at the 1% probability level and on the fruit length and fruit diameter at the 5% probability level. The interaction effect of irrigation water type and water salinity was also significant at the probability level of 1%. On average, during two years of strawberry cultivation with the application of a magnetic field, the length, diameter, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, biomass, and plant yield were increased by 9.76, 14.14, 23.05, 27.60, 27.08, and 28.36% respectively. The introduction of 20 and 40 mM sodium chloride resulted in a decrease in the physical characteristics of strawberry fruit and overall yield. The most significant reduction was observed in the number of fruits per plant at the salinity level of 40 mM sodium chloride, exhibiting a 56.69% decrease compared to the control treatment. Conclusion The growth of population and expansion of agriculture on one hand and the demand for more harvesting from limited water resources on the other hand, make it necessary to increase water productivity. Lack of water and competition for water resources has caused research to be done in order to reduce water consumption and preserve its resources. Therefore, searching for ways to reduce consumption and preserve water resources is of great importance. One of these methods is using magnetic water. The results of the research showed that the use of magnetic water technology caused a significant increase in the yield and yield components of strawberries compared to the control treatment. In addition, the salinity level of irrigation water had a significant impact on the yield and yield components of strawberries, with the highest yield observed in the treatment without salinity stress when using magnetic water technology. The findings of this study indicate that the application of magnetic water technology can enable the use of low salinity levels and lead to improved strawberry yield

Engineering chloroplast development in rice through cell‐specific control of endogenous genetic circuits

Summary: The engineering of C4 photosynthetic activity into the C3 plant rice has the potential to nearly double rice yields. To engineer a two‐cell photosynthetic system in rice, the rice bundle sheath (BS) must be rewired to enhance photosynthetic capacity. Here, we show that BS chloroplast biogenesis is enhanced when the transcriptional activator, Oryza sativa Cytokinin GATA transcription factor 1 (OsCGA1), is driven by a vascular specific promoter. Ectopic expression of OsCGA1 resulted in increased BS chloroplast planar area and increased expression of photosynthesis‐associated nuclear genes (PhANG), required for the biogenesis of photosynthetically active chloroplasts in BS cells of rice. A further refinement using a DNAse dead Cas9 (dCas9) activation module driven by the same cell‐type specific promoter, directed enhanced chloroplast development of the BS cells when gRNA sequences were delivered by the dCas9 module to the promoter of the endogenous OsCGA1 gene. Single gRNA expression was sufficient to mediate the transactivation of both the endogenous gene and a transgenic GUS reporter fused with OsCGA1 promoter. Our results illustrate the potential for tissue‐specific dCas9‐activation and the co‐regulation of genes needed for multistep engineering of C4 rice

Overexpression of the chloroplastic 2-oxoglutarate/malate transporter disturbs carbon and nitrogen homeostasis in rice

The chloroplastic 2-oxaloacetate (OAA)/malate transporter (OMT1 or DiT1) takes part in the malate valve that protects chloroplasts from excessive redox poise through export of malate and import of OAA. Together with the glutamate/malate transporter (DCT1 or DiT2), it connects carbon with nitrogen assimilation, by providing 2-oxoglutarate for the GS/GOGAT (glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase) reaction and exporting glutamate to the cytoplasm. OMT1 further plays a prominent role in C4 photosynthesis: OAA resulting from phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylation is imported into the chloroplast, reduced to malate by plastidic NADP-malate dehydrogenase, and then exported for transport to bundle sheath cells. Both transport steps are catalyzed by OMT1, at the rate of net carbon assimilation. To engineer C4 photosynthesis into C3 crops, OMT1 must be expressed in high amounts on top of core C4 metabolic enzymes. We report here high-level expression of ZmOMT1 from maize in rice (Oryza sativa ssp. indica IR64). Increased activity of the transporter in transgenic rice was confirmed by reconstitution of transporter activity into proteoliposomes. Unexpectedly, overexpression of ZmOMT1 in rice negatively affected growth, CO2 assimilation rate, total free amino acid content, tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites, as well as sucrose and starch contents. Accumulation of high amounts of aspartate and the impaired growth phenotype of OMT1 rice lines could be suppressed by simultaneous overexpression of ZmDiT2. Implications for engineering C4 rice are discussed

An Investigation of Emitters Clogging Under Magnetic Field and Water Quality

Introduction: Water scarcity is one of the major problems for crop production. Using drip irrigation as an effective method in the efficient use of water is expanding in arid and semi-arid regions. One of the problems in under pressure irrigation during use of saline, unconventional and waste is emitters clogging. There are several ways to prevent particle deposits in pipes and clogging of emitters. Generally, conventional methods are divided into two categories: physical and chemical methods. In physical method, suspended solids and inorganic materials are removed using particles sediment sand and disc filters. In the chemical method the pH drops by adding acid to water resulting in the dissolution of carbonate sediments. With chlorine handling, organisms (i.e. algae, fungi and bacteria) that are the main causes of biological clogging are destroyed. However, the application of these methods is not successful in all cases. It has been observed that the emitters have gradually become obstructed. Magnetic water is obtained by passing water through permanent magnets or through the electromagnets installed in or on a feed pipeline. When a fluid passes through the magnetized field, its structure and some physical characteristic such as density, salt solution capacity, and deposition ratio of solid particles will be changed. An experimental study showed that a relatively weak magnetic influence increases the viscosity of water and consequently causes stronger hydrogen bonds under the magnetic field.There exist very few documented research projects related to the magnetization of water technology and its application to agricultural issues in general and emitter clogging in drip irrigation method, in particular. This technology is already used in some countries, especially in the Persian Gulf states. This research was designed and implemented aimed at increasing knowledge about the application of magnetic technology and its effects on emitters clogging in the drip irrigation system. Materials and Methods: A field experiment was carried out in 2011 in Gorgan Agricultural Research Station to study emitter clogging in drip irrigation using magnetic, non-magnetic and acidic water under salinity condition. The geographical location of the farm was 36° 55′ N, 54° 25′ E and 13.3 m above mean sea level with annual rainfall 400-450 mm. The experiment was laid out with a split plot in a complete randomized block design with three replications. The treatments included three treatments of the management of emitters clogging including, magnetized water (M), non-magnetized water (N) and acidic water (A) plus using three water quality levels namely, well water (S1), saline waters 7 (S2) and 14 (S3) dS m-1. Two methods were simultaneously used to magnetize water. In the first method, an electromagnet was installed around the sub-main pipe before the flow of water to the laterals. The amount of power required to magnetize the irrigation water was 0.03 kW-h of electricity per m3 of water. In the second method, the permanent magnets (ceramic magnets) were installed around the sub-main pipe before the laterals. In the second method the power requirement was 0.3 Tesla. To assess the emitter clogging, discharge and its variations as a function of time, emission uniformity, uniformity coefficient, and coefficient of variation were estimated and analyzed. Results and Discussion: The results of variance analysis showed that the effect of different irrigation management in irrigation system (N, M and A treatments) and different levels of water quality on all parameters were significant. Statistical comparison showed that in all cases there were no significant differences between magnetized water and non-magnetized water treatments. However, acidic water was statistically different from the two types of water mentioned. Both magnetic and conventional indices were examined in this study. However, no significant difference was observed. But in all cases, using magnetic water is advantageous compared with using non-magnetized water. The overall results have shown that the use of magnetized water in this study, in the non-saline water condition, does not offer a relatively higher advantage compared to the use of non-magnetized water. Conclusion: For saline water, insignificant differences were observed between magnetic and non-magnetic water treatments, however magnetic water was slightly preferable. Most of the indicators that were assessed showed that acid water treatment was significantly different from magnetic and non-magnetic water treatments. Thus, acid water treatment is not preferable. Emitter clogging with increase of time and the salinity level of irrigation water increased; the greatest difference between the treatments occurred in S3 and the last irrigation treatments. Magnetic water up to salinity level of 7 dS m-1, had no effect on the flow rate and thus on the emitter clogging. However, when using saline irrigation water and also with the increase of time, emitter clogging in magnetic water treatment was lower compared with non-magnetic treatment. Keywords: Emitters clogging, Magnetized water, Saline wate

A new species ofBienertia(Chenopodiaceae) from Iranian salt deserts:A third species of the genus and discovery of a fourth terrestrial C4plant without Kranz anatomy

Bienertia is a very interesting genus with its unique C4 photosynthesis in a single cell. Recent investigations on the taxonomy of the genus using a multidisciplinary approach revealed the existence a third species of this genus from the margin of Dasht-e Kavir (desert plain) in central Iran, thus adding a fourth terrestrial C4 plant lacking Kranz anatomy. The flattened leaves, the semi-inferior ovary resulting from adnation of the perianth with the ovary, in addition to cotyledon morphology and hypocotyl length, provide evidence for the existence of a new species. The new species is here described as Bienertia kavirense Akhani spec. nov., after its locality at the margin of the Kavir. The gametic chromosome complement of the new species is n = 9. The carbon isotope values (δ13C) showed a C4 photosynthesis which is remarkably less negative than in the two other species of Bienertia. Detailed information on the morphology, leaf anatomy, and ecology of the new species is provided, and the new association “Bienertio kavirense–Cornulacetum aucheri” is described as a unique plant community occurring at the margin of the Dasht-e Kavir. Only a few species, such as Salsola annua (Bunge) Akhani comb. nov., associate with B. kavirense

The Evolutionary Origin of C4 photosynthesis in the Grass Subtribe Neurachninae

The Australian grass subtribe Neurachninae contains closely related species that use C3, C4, and C2 photosynthesis. To gain insight into the evolution of C4 photosynthesis in grasses, we examined leaf gas exchange, anatomy and ultrastructure, and tissue localization of Gly decarboxylase subunit P (GLDP) in nine Neurachninae species. We identified previously unrecognized variation in leaf structure and physiology within Neurachne that represents varying degrees of C3–C4 intermediacy in the Neurachninae. These include inverse correlations between the apparent photosynthetic carbon dioxide (CO2) compensation point in the absence of day respiration (C*) and chloroplast and mitochondrial investment in the mestome sheath (MS), where CO2 is concentrated in C2 and C4 Neurachne species; width of the MS cells; frequency of plasmodesmata in the MS cell walls adjoining the parenchymatous bundle sheath; and the proportion of leaf GLDP invested in the MS tissue. Less than 12% of the leaf GLDP was allocated to the MS of completely C3 Neurachninae species with C* values of 56–61 μmol mol−1, whereas two-thirds of leaf GLDP was in the MS of Neurachne lanigera, which exhibits a newly-identified, partial C2 phenotype with C* of 44 μmol mol−1. Increased investment of GLDP in MS tissue of the C2 species was attributed to more MS mitochondria and less GLDP in mesophyll mitochondria. These results are consistent with a model where C4 evolution in Neurachninae initially occurred via an increase in organelle and GLDP content in MS cells, which generated a sink for photorespired CO2 in MS tissues

Light Microscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, and Immunohistochemistry Protocols for Studying Photorespiration

High-resolution images obtained from plant tissues processed for light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and immunohistochemistry have provided crucial links between plant subcellular structure and physiology during photorespiration as well as the impact of photorespiration on plant evolution and development. This chapter presents established protocols to guide researchers in the preparation of plant tissues for high-resolution imaging with a light and transmission electron microscope and detection of proteins using immunohistochemistry. Discussion of concepts and theory behind each step in the process from tissue preservation to staining of resin-embedded tissues is included to enhance the understanding of all steps in the procedure. We also include a brief protocol for quantification of cellular parameters from high-resolution images to help researchers rigorously test hypotheses

The Evolutionary Origin of C₄ Photosynthesis in the Grass Subtribe Neurachninae

The Australian grass subtribe Neurachninae contains closely related species that use C3, C4, and C2 photosynthesis. To gain insight into the evolution of C4 photosynthesis in grasses, we examined leaf gas exchange, anatomy and ultrastructure, and tissue localization of Gly decarboxylase subunit P (GLDP) in nine Neurachninae species. We identified previously unrecognized variation in leaf structure and physiology within Neurachne that represents varying degrees of C3-C4 intermediacy in the Neurachninae. These include inverse correlations between the apparent photosynthetic carbon dioxide (CO2) compensation point in the absence of day respiration (C* ) and chloroplast and mitochondrial investment in the mestome sheath (MS), where CO2 is concentrated in C2 and C4Neurachne species; width of the MS cells; frequency of plasmodesmata in the MS cell walls adjoining the parenchymatous bundle sheath; and the proportion of leaf GLDP invested in the MS tissue. Less than 12% of the leaf GLDP was allocated to the MS of completely C3 Neurachninae species with C* values of 56-61 μmol mol-1, whereas two-thirds of leaf GLDP was in the MS of Neurachne lanigera, which exhibits a newly-identified, partial C2 phenotype with C* of 44 μmol mol-1 Increased investment of GLDP in MS tissue of the C2 species was attributed to more MS mitochondria and less GLDP in mesophyll mitochondria. These results are consistent with a model where C4 evolution in Neurachninae initially occurred via an increase in organelle and GLDP content in MS cells, which generated a sink for photorespired CO2 in MS tissues

Creating Leaf Cell Suspensions for Characterization of Mesophyll and Bundle Sheath Cellular Features

Imaging of mesophyll cell suspensions prepared from Arabidopsis has been pivotal for forming our current understanding of the molecular control of chloroplast division over the past 25 years. In this chapter, we provide a method for the preparation of leaf cell suspensions that improves upon a previous method by optimizing cellular preservation and cell separation. This technique is accessible to all researchers and amenable for use with all plant species. The leaf suspensions can be used for imaging chloroplast features within a cell that are important for photosynthesis such as size, number, and distribution. However, we also provide examples to illustrate how the cells in the suspensions can be easily stained to image other features, for example pit fields where plasmodesmata are located and organelles such as mitochondria, to improve our understanding of traits that are important for photosynthetic physiology