59 research outputs found
Dust growth in protoplanetary disks - a comprehensive experimental/theoretical approach
More than a decade of dedicated experimental work on the collisional physics
of protoplanetary dust has brought us to a point at which the growth of dust
aggregates can - for the first time - be self-consistently and reliably
modelled. In this article, the emergent collision model for protoplanetery dust
aggregates (G\"uttler et al. 2010) as well as the numerical model for the
evolution of dust aggregates in protoplanetary disks (Zsom et al. 2010) are
reviewed. It turns out that, after a brief period of rapid collisional growth
of fluffy dust aggregates to sizes of a few centimeters, the protoplanetary
dust particles are subject to bouncing collisions, in which their porosity is
considerably decreased. The model results also show that low-velocity
fragmentation can reduce the final mass of the dust aggregates but that it does
not trigger a new growth mode as discussed previously. According to the current
stage of our model, the direct formation of kilometer-sized planetesimals by
collisional sticking seems impossible so that collective effects, such as the
streaming instability and the gravitational instability in dust-enhanced
regions of the protoplanetary disk, are the best candidates for the processes
leading to planetesimals.Comment: to appear in Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics (RAA
The Physics of Protoplanetesimal Dust Agglomerates. III. Compaction in Multiple Collisions
To study the evolution of protoplanetary dust aggregates, we performed
experiments with up to 2600 collisions between single, highly-porous dust
aggregates and a solid plate. The dust aggregates consisted of spherical
SiO grains with 1.5m diameter and had an initial volume filling factor
(the volume fraction of material) of . The aggregates were put
onto a vibrating baseplate and, thus, performed multiple collisions with the
plate at a mean velocity of 0.2 m s. The dust aggregates were observed
by a high-speed camera to measure their size which apparently decreased over
time as a measure for their compaction. After 1000 collisions the volume
filling factor was increased by a factor of two, while after
collisions it converged to an equilibrium of . In few
experiments the aggregate fragmented, although the collision velocity was well
below the canonical fragmentation threshold of m s. The
compaction of the aggregate has an influence on the surface-to-mass ratio and
thereby the dynamic behavior and relative velocities of dust aggregates in the
protoplanetary nebula. Moreover, macroscopic material parameters, namely the
tensile strength, shear strength, and compressive strength, are altered by the
compaction of the aggregates, which has an influence on their further
collisional behavior. The occurrence of fragmentation requires a reassessment
of the fragmentation threshold velocity.Comment: accepted by the Astrophysical Journa
Decimetre dust aggregates in protoplanetary discs
The growth of planetesimals is an essential step in planet formation.
Decimetre-size dust agglomerates mark a transition point in this growth
process. In laboratory experiments we simulated the formation, evolution, and
properties of decimetre-scale dusty bodies in protoplanetary discs. Small
sub-mm size dust aggregates consisting of micron-size SiO particles
randomly interacted with dust targets of varying initial conditions in a
continuous sequence of independent collisions. Impact velocities were 7.7 m/s
on average and in the range expected for collisions with decimetre bodies in
protoplanetary discs. The targets all evolved by forming dust \emph{crusts}
with up to several cm thickness and a unique filling factor of 31% 3%. A
part of the projectiles sticks directly. In addition, some projectile fragments
slowly return to the target by gravity. All initially porous parts of the
surface, i.e. built from the slowly returning fragments, are compacted and
firmly attached to the underlying dust layers by the subsequent impacts. Growth
is possible at impact angles from 0 (central collision) to
70. No growth occurs at steeper dust surfaces. We measured the
velocity, angle, and size distribution of collision fragments. The average
restitution coefficient is 3.8% or 0.29 m/s ejection velocity. Ejecta sizes are
comparable to the projectile sizes. The high filling factor is close to the
most compact configuration of dust aggregates by local compression (%). This implies that the history of the surface formation and target growth
is completely erased. In view of this, the filling factor of 31% seems to be a
universal value in the collision experiments of all self-consistently evolving
targets at the given impact velocities. We suggest that decimetre and probably
larger bodies can simply be characterised by one single filling factor.Comment: 10 pages, 9 figure
The four-populations model: a new classification scheme for pre-planetesimal collisions
Within the collision growth scenario for planetesimal formation, the growth
step from centimetre sized pre-planetesimals to kilometre sized planetesimals
is still unclear. The formation of larger objects from the highly porous
pre-planetesimals may be halted by a combination of fragmentation in disruptive
collisions and mutual rebound with compaction. However, the right amount of
fragmentation is necessary to explain the observed dust features in late T
Tauri discs. Therefore, detailed data on the outcome of pre-planetesimal
collisions is required and has to be presented in a suitable and precise
format. We propose and apply a new classification scheme for pre-planetesimal
collisions based on the quantitative aspects of four fragment populations: the
largest and second largest fragment, a power-law population, and a
sub-resolution population. For the simulations of pre-planetesimal collisions,
we adopt the SPH numerical scheme with extensions for the simulation of porous
solid bodies. By means of laboratory benchmark experiments, this model was
previously calibrated and tested for the correct simulation of the compaction,
bouncing, and fragmentation behaviour of macroscopic highly porous silica dust
aggregates. It is shown that previous attempts to map collision data were much
too oriented on qualitatively categorising into sticking, bouncing, and
fragmentation events. We show that the four-populations model encompasses all
previous categorisations and in addition allows for transitions. This is
because it is based on quantitative characteristic attributes of each
population such as the mass, kinetic energy, and filling factor. As a
demonstration of the applicability and the power of the four-populations model,
we utilise it to present the results of a study on the influence of collision
velocity in head-on collisions of intermediate porosity aggregates.Comment: 14 pages, 11 figures, 5 tables, to be published in Astronomy and
Astrophysic
Compression Behaviour of Porous Dust Agglomerates
The early planetesimal growth proceeds through a sequence of sticking
collisions of dust agglomerates. Very uncertain is still the relative velocity
regime in which growth rather than destruction can take place. The outcome of a
collision depends on the bulk properties of the porous dust agglomerates.
Continuum models of dust agglomerates require a set of material parameters that
are often difficult to obtain from laboratory experiments. Here, we aim at
determining those parameters from ab-initio molecular dynamics simulations. Our
goal is to improveon the existing model that describe the interaction of
individual monomers. We use a molecular dynamics approach featuring a detailed
micro-physical model of the interaction of spherical grains. The model includes
normal forces, rolling, twisting and sliding between the dust grains. We
present a new treatment of wall-particle interaction that allows us to perform
customized simulations that directly correspond to laboratory experiments. We
find that the existing interaction model by Dominik & Tielens leads to a too
soft compressive strength behavior for uni and omni-directional compression.
Upon making the rolling and sliding coefficients stiffer we find excellent
agreement in both cases. Additionally, we find that the compressive strength
curve depends on the velocity with which the sample is compressed. The modified
interaction strengths between two individual dust grains will lead to a
different behaviour of the whole dust agglomerate. This will influences the
sticking probabilities and hence the growth of planetesimals. The new parameter
set might possibly lead to an enhanced sticking as more energy can be stored in
the system before breakup.Comment: 11 pages, 14 figures, accepted for publication in A&
High Velocity Dust Collisions: Forming Planetesimals in a Fragmentation Cascade with Final Accretion
In laboratory experiments we determine the mass gain and loss in central
collisions between cm to dm-size SiO2 dust targets and sub-mm to cm-size SiO2
dust projectiles of varying mass, size, shape, and at different collision
velocities up to ~56.5 m/s. Dust projectiles much larger than 1 mm lead to a
small amount of erosion of the target but decimetre targets do not break up.
Collisions produce ejecta which are smaller than the incoming projectile.
Projectiles smaller than 1 mm are accreted by a target even at the highest
collision velocities. This implies that net accretion of decimetre and larger
bodies is possible. Independent of the original size of a projectile
considered, after several collisions all fragments will be of sub-mm size which
might then be (re)-accreted in the next collision with a larger body. The
experimental data suggest that collisional growth through fragmentation and
reaccretion is a viable mechanism to form planetesimals
The outcome of protoplanetary dust growth: pebbles, boulders, or planetesimals? I. Mapping the zoo of laboratory collision experiments
The growth processes from protoplanetary dust to planetesimals are not fully
understood. Laboratory experiments and theoretical models have shown that
collisions among the dust aggregates can lead to sticking, bouncing, and
fragmentation. However, no systematic study on the collisional outcome of
protoplanetary dust has been performed so far so that a physical model of the
dust evolution in protoplanetary disks is still missing. We intend to map the
parameter space for the collisional interaction of arbitrarily porous dust
aggregates. This parameter space encompasses the dust-aggregate masses, their
porosities and the collision velocity. With such a complete mapping of the
collisional outcomes of protoplanetary dust aggregates, it will be possible to
follow the collisional evolution of dust in a protoplanetary disk environment.
We use literature data, perform own laboratory experiments, and apply simple
physical models to get a complete picture of the collisional interaction of
protoplanetary dust aggregates. In our study, we found four different types of
sticking, two types of bouncing, and three types of fragmentation as possible
outcomes in collisions among protoplanetary dust aggregates. We distinguish
between eight combinations of porosity and mass ratio. For each of these cases,
we present a complete collision model for dust-aggregate masses between 10^-12
and 10^2 g and collision velocities in the range 10^-4 to 10^4 cm/s for
arbitrary porosities. This model comprises the collisional outcome, the
mass(es) of the resulting aggregate(s) and their porosities. We present the
first complete collision model for protoplanetary dust. This collision model
can be used for the determination of the dust-growth rate in protoplanetary
disks.Comment: accepted by Astronomy and Astrophysic
From dust to planetesimals: an improved model for collisional growth in protoplanetary disks
Planet formation occurs within the gas and dust rich environments of
protoplanetary disks. Observations of these objects show that the growth of
primordial sub micron sized particles into larger aggregates occurs at the
earliest stages of the disks. However, theoretical models of particle growth
that use the Smoluchowski equation to describe collisional coagulation and
fragmentation have so far failed to produce large particles while maintaining a
significant populations of small grains. This has been generally attributed to
the existence of two barriers impeding growth due to bouncing and fragmentation
of colliding particles. In this paper, we demonstrate that the importance of
these barriers has been artificially inflated through the use of simplified
models that do not take into account the stochastic nature of the particle
motions within the gas disk. We present a new approach in which the relative
velocities between two particles is described by a probability distribution
function that models both deterministic motion and stochastic motion. Taking
both into account can give quite different results to what has been considered
recently in other studies. We demonstrate the vital effect of two "ingredients"
for particle growth: the proper implementation of a velocity distribution
function that overcomes the bouncing barrier and, in combination with mass
transfer in high-mass-ratio collisions, boosts the growth of larger particles
beyond the fragmentation barrier. A robust result of our simulations is the
emergence of two particle populations (small and large), potentially explaining
simultaneously a number of long-standing problems in protoplanetary disks,
including planetesimal formation close to the central star, the presence of mm
to cm size particles far out in the disk, and the persistence of micron-size
grains for millions of years.Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ. Additional appendix included. Minor
changes from previous versions. 46 pages, 10 figure
The Physics of Protoplanetesimal Dust Agglomerates. IV. Towards a Dynamical Collision Model
Recent years have shown many advances in our knowledge of the collisional
evolution of protoplanetary dust. Based on a variety of dust-collision
experiments in the laboratory, our view of the growth of dust aggregates in
protoplanetary disks is now supported by a deeper understanding of the physics
involved in the interaction between dust agglomerates. However, the parameter
space, which determines the collisional outcome, is huge and sometimes
inaccessible to laboratory experiments. Very large or fluffy dust aggregates
and extremely low collision velocities are beyond the boundary of today's
laboratories. It is therefore desirable to augment our empirical knowledge of
dust-collision physics with a numerical method to treat arbitrary aggregate
sizes, porosities and collision velocities. In this article, we implement
experimentally-determined material parameters of highly porous dust aggregates
into a Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) code, in particular an
omnidirectional compressive-strength and a tensile-strength relation. We also
give a prescription of calibrating the SPH code with compression and
low-velocity impact experiments. In the process of calibration, we developed a
dynamic compressive-strength relation and estimated a relation for the shear
strength. Finally, we defined and performed a series of benchmark tests and
found the agreement between experimental results and numerical simulations to
be very satisfactory. SPH codes have been used in the past to study collisions
at rather high velocities. At the end of this work, we show examples of future
applications in the low-velocity regime of collisional evolution.Comment: accepted by The astrophysical Journa
The Growth & Migration of Jovian Planets in Evolving Protostellar Disks with Dead Zones
The growth of Jovian mass planets during migration in their protoplanetary
disks is one of the most important problems that needs to be solved in light of
observations of the exosolar planets. Studies of the migration of planets in
standard gas disk models routinely show that migration is too fast to form
Jovian planets, and that such migrating planetary cores generally plunge into
the central stars in less than a Myr. In previous work, we have shown that a
poorly ionized, less viscous region in a protoplanetary disk called a dead zone
slows down the migration of fixed-mass planets. In this paper, we extend our
numerical calculations to include dead zone evolution along with the disk, as
well as planet formation via accretion of rocky and gaseous materials. Using
our symplectic-integrator-gas dynamics code, we find that dead zones, even in
evolving disks wherein migrating planets grow by accretion, still play a
fundamental role in saving planetary systems. We demonstrate that Jovian
planets form within 2.5 Myr for disks that are ten times more massive than a
minimum mass solar nebula (MMSN) with an opacity reduction and without slowing
down migration artificially. Our simulations indicate that protoplanetary disks
with an initial mass comparable to the MMSN only produce Neptunian mass
planets. We also find that planet migration does not help core accretion as
much in the oligarchic planetesimal accretion scenario as it was expected in
the runaway accretion scenario. Therefore we expect that an opacity reduction
(or some other mechanisms) is needed to solve the formation timescale problem
even for migrating protoplanets, as long as we consider the oligarchic growth.
We also point out a possible role of a dead zone in explaining long-lived,
strongly accreting gas disks.Comment: 16 pages, 15 figures, accepted for publication in Ap
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