Recognizing Speech in a Novel Accent: The Motor Theory of Speech Perception Reframed

The motor theory of speech perception holds that we perceive the speech of another in terms of a motor representation of that speech. However, when we have learned to recognize a foreign accent, it seems plausible that recognition of a word rarely involves reconstruction of the speech gestures of the speaker rather than the listener. To better assess the motor theory and this observation, we proceed in three stages. Part 1 places the motor theory of speech perception in a larger framework based on our earlier models of the adaptive formation of mirror neurons for grasping, and for viewing extensions of that mirror system as part of a larger system for neuro-linguistic processing, augmented by the present consideration of recognizing speech in a novel accent. Part 2 then offers a novel computational model of how a listener comes to understand the speech of someone speaking the listener's native language with a foreign accent. The core tenet of the model is that the listener uses hypotheses about the word the speaker is currently uttering to update probabilities linking the sound produced by the speaker to phonemes in the native language repertoire of the listener. This, on average, improves the recognition of later words. This model is neutral regarding the nature of the representations it uses (motor vs. auditory). It serve as a reference point for the discussion in Part 3, which proposes a dual-stream neuro-linguistic architecture to revisits claims for and against the motor theory of speech perception and the relevance of mirror neurons, and extracts some implications for the reframing of the motor theory

Reporting and evaluating genetic association studies

Genetic association studies have become an important part of our scientific landscape. This commentary discusses some basic scientific issues which should be considered when reporting and evaluating such studies including SNP Discovery, Genotyping and Haplotype Analysis; Population Size, Matching of Cases and Controls, and Population Stratification; Phenotype Definition and Multiple Related Phenotypes; Multiple Testing; Replication; Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS); and the Role of Functional Studies. All of these elements are important in evaluating such studies and should be carefully considered when these studies are conceived and carried out

Asymmetric Wolbachia Segregation during Early Brugia malayi Embryogenesis Determines Its Distribution in Adult Host Tissues

Wolbachia are required for filarial nematode survival and fertility and contribute to the immune responses associated with human filarial diseases. Here we developed whole-mount immunofluorescence techniques to characterize Wolbachia somatic and germline transmission patterns and tissue distribution in Brugia malayi, a nematode responsible for lymphatic filariasis. In the initial embryonic divisions, Wolbachia segregate asymmetrically such that they occupy only a small subset of cells in the developing embryo, facilitating their concentration in the adult hypodermal chords and female germline. Wolbachia are not found in male reproductive tissues and the absence of Wolbachia from embryonic germline precursors in half of the embryos indicates Wolbachia loss from the male germline may occur in early embryogenesis. Wolbachia rely on fusion of hypodermal cells to populate adult chords. Finally, we detect Wolbachia in the secretory canal lumen suggesting living worms may release bacteria and/or their products into their host

Comportamentos agressivos em crianças e adolescentes com risco para esquizofrenia: diferenças entre gêneros

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate whether differences in aggression-related behavioral problems occur between boys and girls at high risk for schizophrenia living in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. METHOD: Using the Child Behavior Checklist, we compared the prevalence of behavioral problems between genders for the offspring (6-18 years) of mothers with diagnosis of schizophrenia and a comparison group of children born to women with no severe mental disorders recruited at the gynecology outpatient clinic of the same hospital. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, Patient Edition was applied for the evaluation of diagnostic status of mothers. RESULTS: Male children of women with schizophrenia had a lower prevalence of aggressive behavior compared to females (4% vs. 36%; p = 0.005), whereas no gender differences regarding aggression were detected in the comparison group (24% vs. 32%; p = 0.53). Logistic regression analyses showed that male gender and being a child of women with schizophrenia interacted so as to favor lower prevalence of aggressive behavior (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: These findings reinforce the notion that behavioral gender differences related to schizophrenia are already detectable in childhood.OBJETIVO: Investigar diferenças da ocorrência de comportamentos agressivos entre crianças e adolescentes do sexo masculino e feminino com risco genético para desenvolver esquizofrenia. MÉTODO: A prevalência de comportamentos agressivos foi medida utilizando o inventário de comportamentos para crianças e adolescentes, Child Behavior Checklist, e comparada entre os gêneros para o grupo de crianças filhas de mulheres com esquizofrenia e para um grupo de crianças filhas de mulheres atendidas no serviço de ginecologia do mesmo hospital. A entrevista clínica estruturada para DSM-IV (The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders Patient Edition) foi utilizada para confirmar o diagnóstico materno. RESULTADOS: Os filhos de mulheres com esquizofrenia do sexo masculino apresentaram prevalência menor de comportamentos agressivos quando comparados às meninas (4% x 36%; p = 0,005), o que não ocorreu para o grupo comparativo (24% x 32%; p = 0,53). A análise de regressão logística mostrou que pertencer ao sexo masculino e ser filho de mulher com esquizofrenia interagiram de forma a favorecer menor prevalência de comportamentos agressivos (p = 0,03). CONCLUSÃO: Esses achados corroboram para a noção que as diferenças comportamentais entre os gêneros na esquizofrenia podem ser detectadas precocemente durante a infância

Comparison of the impact of atrial fibrillation on the risk of early death after stroke in women versus men

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is considered a predictive factor of poor clinical outcome in patients with an ischemic stroke (IS). This study addressed whether the impact of AF on the in-hospital mortality after first ever IS is different according to the patient’s gender. METHODS: We prospectively studied 1678 patients with first ever IS consecutively admitted to two University Hospitals. We recorded demographic data, vascular risk factors, and the stroke severity (NIHSS) at admission analyzing their impact on the in-hospital mortality and on the combined mortality-dependency at discharge using a Cox proportional hazards model. Two variable interactions between those factors independently related to in-hospital mortality and combined mortality-dependency at discharge were tested. RESULTS: Overall in-hospital mortality was 11.3%. Cox proportional hazards model showed that NIHSS at admission (HR: 1.178 [95% CI 1.149–1.207]), age (HR: 1.044 [95% CI 1.026–1.061]), AF (HR: 1.416 [95% CI 1.048–1.913]), male gender (HR: 1.853 [95% CI 1.323–2.192) and ischemic heart disease (HR: 1.527 [95% CI 1.063–2.192]) were independent predictors of in-hospital mortality. A significant interaction between gender and AF was found (p = 0.017). Data were stratified by gender, showing that AF was an independent predictor of poor outcome just for woman (HR: 2.183 [95% CI 1.403–3.396]; p < 0.001). The independent predictors of combined mortality-disability at discharge were NIHSS at admission (HR: 1.052 [95% CI 1.041–1.063]), age (HR: 1.011 [95% CI 1.004–1.018]), AF (HR: 1.197 [95% CI 1.031–1.390]), ischemic heart disease (HR: 1.222 [95% CI 1.004–1.488]), and smoking (HR: 1.262 [95% CI 1.033–1.541]). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of AF is different in the twogenders and appears as a specific ischemic stroke predictor of in-hospital mortality just for women

The developmental effects of media-ideal internalization and self-objectification processes on adolescents’ negative body-feelings, dietary restraint, and binge eating

Despite accumulated experimental evidence of the negative effects of exposure to media-idealized images, the degree to which body image, and eating related disturbances are caused by media portrayals of gendered beauty ideals remains controversial. On the basis of the most up-to-date meta-analysis of experimental studies indicating that media-idealized images have the most harmful and substantial impact on vulnerable individuals regardless of gender (i.e., “internalizers” and “self-objectifiers”), the current longitudinal study examined the direct and mediated links posited in objectification theory among media-ideal internalization, self-objectification, shame and anxiety surrounding the body and appearance, dietary restraint, and binge eating. Data collected from 685 adolescents aged between 14 and 15 at baseline (47 % males), who were interviewed and completed standardized measures annually over a 3-year period, were analyzed using a structural equation modeling approach. Results indicated that media-ideal internalization predicted later thinking and scrutinizing of one’s body from an external observer’s standpoint (or self-objectification), which then predicted later negative emotional experiences related to one’s body and appearance. In turn, these negative emotional experiences predicted subsequent dietary restraint and binge eating, and each of these core features of eating disorders influenced each other. Differences in the strength of these associations across gender were not observed, and all indirect effects were significant. The study provides valuable information about how the cultural values embodied by gendered beauty ideals negatively influence adolescents’ feelings, thoughts and behaviors regarding their own body, and on the complex processes involved in disordered eating. Practical implications are discussed

Large Differences in Publicly Visible Health Behaviours across Two Neighbourhoods of the Same City

Background: There are socioeconomic disparities in the likelihood of adopting unhealthy behaviours, and success at giving them up. This may be in part because people living in deprived areas are exposed to greater rates of unhealthy behaviour amongst those living around them. Conventional self-report surveys do not capture these differences in exposure, and more ethological methods are required in order to do so. Methodology/Principal Findings: We performed 12 hours of direct behavioural observation in the streets of two neighbourhoods of the same city which were similar in most regards, except that one was much more socioeconomically deprived than the other. There were large differences in the publicly visible health behaviours observed. In the deprived neighbourhood, we observed 266 more adults smoking (rate ratio 3.44), 53 more adults drinking alcohol (rate ratio not calculable), and 38 fewer adults running (rate ratio 0.23), than in the affluent neighbourhood. We used data from the Health Survey for England to calculate the differences we ought to expect to have seen given the individual-level socioeconomic characteristics of the residents. The observed disparities between the two neighbourhoods were considerably greater than this null model predicted. There were also different patterns of smoking in proximity to children in the two neighbourhoods. Conclusions/Significance: The differences in observed smoking, drinking alcohol, and physical activity between these tw

Regional variation in hospitalization for stroke among Asians/Pacific Islanders in the United States: a nationwide retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND: In Asia, stroke incidence varies dramatically from country to country. Little is known about stroke incidence in Asians/Pacific Islanders in the US, where regional heterogeneity in Asian/Pacific Islander sub-populations is great. We sought to characterize both the national and regional incidences of first and recurrent hospitalized acute ischemic stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and intracerebral hemorrhage in Asians/Pacific Islanders compared to non-Hispanic whites. METHODS: We used the National Inpatient Sample of the 1997 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. It is a 20% stratified sample of hospitalizations to nonfederal hospitals in the US. National and regional projections were made using sampling weights specific for patients and hospitals. We identified stroke subtypes using previously validated ICD-9 codes. Age-adjusted incidence rates were calculated using the direct method with the US population in 2000 as the standard. RESULTS: There were 169,386 stroke hospitalizations in the database. Nationally, compared to whites, Asians/Pacific Islanders were more likely to have subarachnoid hemorrhage (incidence rate ratio {RR} female: 1.53, 95% CI 1.41–1.65; male RR: 1.13, 95% CI 1.00–1.27) and intracerebral hemorrhage (female RR 1.29, 95% CI 1.22–1.36; male RR: 1.58, 95% CI 1.50–1.67). However, when examined by geographic regions, Asians/Pacific Islanders had higher incidence rates of subarachnoid hemorrhage and intracerebral hemorrhage predominantly in the West, and lower rates of stroke elsewhere. CONCLUSION: Stroke incidence varies 3-fold among Asians/Pacific Islanders residing in different US regions. Geographic variation is less dramatic in whites. Whether genetic or cultural differences are responsible for dramatic heterogeneity among Asian/Pacific Islander populations is unclear and deserves further study

Antibiotic susceptibility of Atopobium vaginae

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have indicated that a recently described anaerobic bacterium, Atopobium vaginae is associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV). Thus far the four isolates of this fastidious micro-organism were found to be highly resistant to metronidazole and susceptible for clindamycin, two antibiotics preferred for the treatment of BV. METHODS: Nine strains of Atopobium vaginae, four strains of Gardnerella vaginalis, two strains of Lactobacillus iners and one strain each of Bifidobacterium breve, B. longum, L. crispatus, L. gasseri and L. jensenii were tested against 15 antimicrobial agents using the Etest. RESULTS: All nine strains of A. vaginae were highly resistant to nalidixic acid and colistin while being inhibited by low concentrations of clindamycin (range: < 0.016 μg/ml), rifampicin (< 0.002 μg/ml), azithromycin (< 0.016 – 0.32 μg/ml), penicillin (0.008 – 0.25 μg/ml), ampicillin (< 0.016 – 0.94 μg/ml), ciprofloxacin (0.023 – 0.25 μg/ml) and linezolid (0.016 – 0.125 μg/ml). We found a variable susceptibility for metronidazole, ranging from 2 to more than 256 μg/ml. The four G. vaginalis strains were also susceptible for clindamycin (< 0.016 – 0.047 μg/ml) and three strains were susceptible to less than 1 μg/ml of metronidazole. All lactobacilli were resistant to metronidazole (> 256 μg/ml) but susceptible to clindamycin (0.023 – 0.125 μg/ml). CONCLUSION: Clindamycin has higher activity against G. vaginalis and A. vaginae than metronidazole, but not all A. vaginae isolates are metronidazole resistant, as seemed to be a straightforward conclusion from previous studies on a more limited number of strains

Cognitive function is associated with risk aversion in community-based older persons

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Emerging data from younger and middle-aged persons suggest that cognitive ability is negatively associated with risk aversion, but this association has not been studied among older persons who are at high risk of experiencing loss of cognitive function.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Using data from 369 community-dwelling older persons without dementia from the Rush Memory and Aging Project, an ongoing longitudinal epidemiologic study of aging, we examined the correlates of risk aversion and tested the hypothesis that cognition is negatively associated with risk aversion. Global cognition and five specific cognitive abilities were measured via detailed cognitive testing, and risk aversion was measured using standard behavioral economics questions in which participants were asked to choose between a certain monetary payment ($15) versus a gamble in which they could gain more than$15 or gain nothing; potential gamble gains ranged from $21.79 to$151.19 with the gain amounts varied randomly over questions. We first examined the bivariate associations of age, education, sex, income and cognition with risk aversion. Next, we examined the associations between cognition and risk aversion via mixed models adjusted for age, sex, education, and income. Finally, we conducted sensitivity analyses to ensure that our results were not driven by persons with preclinical cognitive impairment.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>In bivariate analyses, sex, education, income and global cognition were associated with risk aversion. However, in a mixed effect model, only sex (estimate = -1.49, standard error (SE) = 0.39, p < 0.001) and global cognitive function (estimate = -1.05, standard error (SE) = 0.34, p < 0.003) were significantly inversely associated with risk aversion. Thus, a lower level of global cognitive function and female sex were associated with greater risk aversion. Moreover, performance on four out of the five cognitive domains was negatively related to risk aversion (<it>i.e</it>., semantic memory, episodic memory, working memory, and perceptual speed); performance on visuospatial abilities was not.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>A lower level of cognitive ability and female sex are associated with greater risk aversion in advanced age.</p