Distortion costs and effects of price liberalisation in Russian energy markets: A CGE analysis

Russia’s economy is energy intense and wasteful of resources. This situation has arisen in part due to the country’s ample energy supplies and regulated privileges for domestic con-sumers. Recently enacted and proposed reforms intended to increase the efficiency of the energy sector by raising domestic energy prices also have implications for the export levels of Russian energy commodities. In this study, we estimate the costs of the subsidised en-ergy system in an allocative sense and then analyse recent moves of the Duma to boost gas and electricity prices to bring them into line with market-based pricing. Our analysis uses a multi-region general equilibrium model (GTAP) modified to express the global dimensions of the subsidisation policy and suggested reforms. Preliminary results show that current subsidies extract over 6% of GDP and limit the potential benefits of Russia’s comparative advantage in energy commodities. Increases of 6% in electricity and 10% in the price of regulated gas improve efficiency by reducing distorting subsidies and distinctly shifting output from domestic markets to exports.CGE modelling; energy market liberalisation; Russia

Factor Price Equalization in Finland

The Heckscher-Ohlin trade model leads to clear conclusions on the absolute and relative factor prices in a two-commodity specification of the model where both commodities are produced and factors can move freely within the economy. Even though the tests on factor price equalization fail in international comparisons, regional approach offers a prospective way of characterizing how factors of production, e.g. skilled and unskilled labor are utilized in optimally behaving markets and which potential reasons are behind deviating from the ideal situation. Within one economy, Finland, where regions are well integrated nationally by goods trade and factor mobility, we test factor price equality between regions. Robust tests derived from Heckscher-Ohlin trade model developed by Bernard and Schott (2001) and further by Bernard et al. (2002) are used for testing the absolute and relative equalization between factor prices. As a distinction to absolute equalization, the relative equalization allows regional differences in the total factor productivity. The tests are robust to unobserved regional productivity differences, unobserved regional factor quality differences and variations in production technology across industries. Regional relative factor prices can also be used for studying regional industry mix (different cones of diversification) that can vary between regions but are in accordance with the theory. These different industry mixes on the other hand imply different skill-premium to prevail in different regions depending on the availability of endowments. Large supply of skilled labor will result in lower relative wages for skilled labor. Tests are applicable to any pairs of factors and do not necessarily need information e.g. on capital inputs. We compare the results with similar regional studies conducted in the United States and the United Kingdom. Compared to flexible labor markets in the U.S. and small but densely populated United Kingdom, the differences are expected to be even larger in Finland, since the country is a sparsely populated but relatively large country. Markets are well integrated in Finland, though, and common regulations prevail throughout the country. The data used for Finland deviates from the reference studies. We utilize Population Census of employed labor force and concentrate the analysis on the manufacturing sector between 1987 and 1999. We start with one cross-section and then extend the analysis to several years. The data includes 135 000 observations based on employment relations. Education level is used for dividing the labor force into skilled and unskilled labor force. The data is connected with the information on provincial identification as well as the industry coding of the employer. The country is divided to 15 employment regions and the employer coding follows 3-digit SITC classification. Both in the U.S. and the UK the hypothesis on the same relative factor prices are widely rejected in the literature. As an explanation there may be varying industry mixes, region-industry technology differences, agglomeration and increasing returns to scale. For Finland we aim at estimating possible regionally varying effects of joining to European Union and are regions differentially exposed to pressures from increased international trade.

Jakamiseen perustuva vaatteiden kulutus: Omistajuus, kiintymys ja identiteetti

Whereas ownership has traditionally been central to consumption, consuming objects by accessing them rather than owning is becoming an increasingly attractive alternative for consumers. Access- based consumption is seen to liberate consumers from the obligations of ownership and allow them to experience something they normally could not. The purpose of this study is to explore the phenomena of access-based consumption and gain understanding on the nature of ownership in access-based consumption and its relation to consumers’ identity work. The study is conducted in highly visible and highly symbolic consumption context of clothing, which is assumed to enrich our understanding on the phenomena. The study relies on the consumer research literature of construction-through-consumption and liquid consumption. The study is qualitative and interpretive in nature, relying on semi-structured in-depth interviews of seven clothing library users as the main data collection method. Materiality is added as an additional layer to the study through relying on the method of wardrobe interviews. Wardrobe interviews are employed in order to better understand the person-object relationships. The study deepens our understanding on how objects within the realm of access-based consumption are employed in consumers’ identity narratives and what kind of interplay they have with the objects belonging to one’s own wardrobe. By building on the literature of construction-through- consumption, this study suggests that access-based consumption may provide consumers with unique opportunities for identity expression, identity experimentation, and reaching for desirable identities that are out of consumers reach in traditional ownership. Ownership is found to be an important source for constructing coherent identities. This study adds on our understanding of the nature of ownership in access-based consumption as it illustrates how consumers may form attachment with access-based goods and how they aim to control it. Lastly, this study expands our understanding on managing wardrobe as a clothing collection by illustrating the interplay of liquid, access-based clothes with the solid core of clothes collection, and by suggesting how liquid consumption may help consumers in managing coherent wardrobes

Quantifying Brain Microstructure with Diffusion MRI: An Assessment of Microscopic Anisotropy Imaging

Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging is routinely used for quantifying microstructural properties of brain tissue in both health and disease for its ability to be sensitive to the displacements of water molecules on a microscopic level. Significant effort has been put into the development of methods that provide more information on tissue microstructure than conventional diffusion tensor imaging. Multidimensional diffusion encoding methods render the signal sensitive to the displacements of water molecules that occur along two or three dimensions and can resolve some degeneracies in data acquired with single diffusion encoding methods that measure diffusion along a single dimension. The aim of this thesis is to study the state-of-the-art microstructural imaging methods and to assess their robustness in estimating microscopic diffusion anisotropy, i.e., the average anisotropy of the microscopic diffusion environments irrespective of their orientation dispersion, prior to their adoption in the wider neuroscience research community and possible deployment in clinical studies. First, a massively parallel Monte Carlo random walk simulator is presented. Second, the reproducibility of three commonly used microstructural models is quantified and the shortcomings of such single diffusion encoding methods in estimating microscopic diffusion anisotropy are addressed. Third, the challenges of estimating microscopic diffusion anisotropy in the human brain using double diffusion encoding are addressed using animal imaging experiments and simulations. The results support the feasibility of double diffusion encoding in human neuroimaging but raise hitherto overlooked precision issues when measuring microscopic diffusion anisotropy. Fourth, the accuracy and precision of microscopic diffusion anisotropy estimation using q-space trajectory encoding, a multidimensional diffusion encoding method specifically developed with the limitations of clinical whole-body scanners in mind, are assessed using imaging experiments and simulations. The results suggest that although broken model assumptions and time-dependent diffusion may bias the estimates, the effect of time-dependent diffusion on the estimated microscopic diffusion anisotropy is small in human white matter

Winners and Losers in the World Sugar Market due to Trade Liberalisation in the EU Sugar Sector

The ongoing trade negotiations, unilateral trade concessions and obligations under the World Trade Organization (WTO) are pushing the EU sugar regime to undertake reforms. These reforms will alter the positions of developing countries in the global sugar markets. Gradual changes within the tariff rate quotas in the EU sugar regime would have a very marginal impact on the flow of sugar exports to the EU and world sugar markets as well. The simulation results showed that the scheduled changes in tariff rate quotas and transition period are stalling the impacts of tariff liberalisation granted by the Everything But Arms (EBA) concession. Small concessions will not threaten the EU internal market, but total liberalisation of sugar imports from the least developed countries (LDCs) will be a major threat to the EU sugar regime. Conversely, the EU would gain from the liberalisation scenarios in welfare terms due to cheaper imports of sugar. The current regime limits sugar imports from all developing countries or some efficient producers, if the cost data is a right estimate of the potential supply response from developing countries. The supply responses, which strongly affect the outcomes, are dependent on both the nature of substitution for sugar as well as on the efficiency of sugar production in different countries. The LDCs would be the major winners under the EBA concession supported by the unchanged EU sugar regime, but if the current regime is entirely liberalised, much of the gains are diluted due to the deterioration in the terms of trade and a few efficient sugar producers would be the winners. The multi-region and multi-sector general equilibrium framework (GTAP model) is used for this analysis.The full liberalisation of the EU sugar regime and the abolition of the preferential treatment in the EU sugar regime would change the position of the countries as winners or losers. The assumptions on the production and export possibilities of the sugar producing countries and the homogenous nature of sugar would create more losers than winners. For some of the losers, the loss of sugar exports could seriously damage their fragile economy. Therefore, the abolition or loss of preferential treatment is an important issue and hotly debated around the world.Trade preferences have the potential of helping developing countries to promote self-sustained economic development and can substitute transfers in the form of direct financial assistance from developed countries to poor developing countries. The EU has maintained this development perspective by granting preferential access to the highly protected and subsidised EU sugar market with prices significantly above the world market prices. In the short run, any sudden changes in the EU regime and trade policies may cause severe problems for the poor currently employed in the export-oriented sugar industry of the developing countries. Compensation is needed for these affected people because of the adjustment costs due to the changes in trade policies. In the long run, the sustainable export performance and economic development based on the comparative advantage of the developing countries should be the final objective. Though, the livelihood of the poor must be protected against sudden changes in trade policies in the effort to achieve the Millennium Development Goals

Tasa-arvo ja ilmastonmuutos : kehysanalyysi Suomen ilmastoulkopolitiikan tasa-arvonäkökulmista ja ratkaisuehdotuksista

The purpose of this Master's thesis is to examine the gender equality perspectives of Finland's international climate policy. My research questions are: what kind of gender equality does Finland represent and promote internationally through its climate policies and what kind of policy proposals and solutions does Finland present to address the needs of women and girls in its climate efforts? The impacts of climate change are experienced through the lens of gender and intersecting vulnerabilities. Climate change disproportionately affects those already in vulnerable positions, and it also complicates gender equality work, pushing it backwards. Therefore, gender equality is a climate issue, and climate change is a gender equality issue. My research material consists of documents guiding the actions of the Finnish state, addressing both gender equality and the mitigation and adaptation to climate change from an international policy perspective. I approach the material through frame analysis as well as through ecofeminist and intersectional perspectives. Theoretical frameworks have proven to be an effective starting point for examining structural inequality and women's rights and participation. In my analysis I have identified four frames: the frame of intersecting vulnerabilities, the frame of structural inequality, the frame of participation, and the frame of mainstreaming. Based on the results, the promotion of gender equality is hindered by the lack of systematic indicators and information, and the goals remain largely declarative. My research findings supported the research hypothesis that integrating gender equality into climate policy promotes the overall well-being of society and ensures that climate actions do not increase inequality. This assertion was widely acknowledged as part of the selected materials.Tässä pro gradu -tutkielmassa tarkastelen Suomen ilmastoulkopolitiikan tasa-arvonäkökulmia. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat, että minkälaista tasa-arvoa Suomi edustaa ja edistää kansainvälisesti ilmastoulkopolitiikallaan ja että millaisia toimenpide-ehdotuksia ja ratkaisuja Suomi esittää naisten ja tyttöjen huomioimiseksi ilmastoulkopoliittisessa työskentelyssä. Ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutukset koetaan sukupuolen sekä risteävien haavoittuvuuksien kautta. Ilmastonmuutos osuu pahiten jo haavoittuvassa asemassa oleviin, sekä myös vaikeuttaa tasa-arvotyötä vieden sitä taaksepäin. Tasa-arvo on siis ilmastokysymys ja ilmastonmuutos tasa-arvokysymys. Tutkimusaineistona olen hyödyntänyt Suomen valtion toimintaa ohjaavia asiakirjoja, jotka käsittelevät sekä tasa-arvoa että ilmastonmuutoksen torjuntaa sekä siihen sopeutumista kansainvälisen politiikan näkökulmasta. Lähestyn aineistoa kehysanalyysin kautta sekä ekofeministisen ja intersektionaalisen näkökulmien kautta. Teoreettiset viitekehykseni osoittautuivat tutkimusteoreettisesti toimivaksi lähtökohdaksi erityisesti rakenteellisen epätasa-arvon ja naisten oikeuksien ja osallisuuden lähtökohtien tarkasteluun. Olen määrittänyt tutkimukseni tuloksissa neljä kehystä: risteävien haavoittuvuuksien kehyksen, rakenteellisen epätasa-arvon kehyksen, osallisuuden kehyksen sekä valtavirtaistamisen kehyksen. Tulosten perusteella tasa-arvon edistämistä hidastaa systemaattisten indikaattoreiden ja tiedon puuttuminen, ja tavoitteet jäävät monilta osin julistuspohjaisiksi. Tutkimustulokseni tuki tutkimushypoteesia siitä, että tasa-arvon huomioiminen osana ilmastopolitiikkaa edistää yhteiskunnan laaja-alaista hyvinvointia ja varmistaa, että ilmastotoimet eivät lisää eriarvoisuutta. Tämä väite oli laajasti huomioitu osana valitsemiani aineistoja

”Koko yhteisön juttu” : fenomenografinen tutkimus vanhempien käsityksistä koskien koulun koulukiusaamista koskevaa toimintaa

Pro gradu- tutkielmani tarkoituksena on laadullisen tutkimuksen keinoin selvittää, minkälaisia käsityksiä vanhemmilla on koulun menettelytavoista puuttua koulukiusaamiseen. Tutkimusaineistoni koostuu vanhempien käymistä nettikeskusteluista koskien koulukiusaamista. Teoriaosuudessa käsittelen perheen ja kasvuympäristön merkitystä lapsen sosiaalisten suhteiden taustalla sekä erittelen koulun mahdollisuuksia puuttua koulukiusaamiseen. Käsittelen myös kodin ja koulun välistä yhteistyötä sekä sitä, mitä sen onnistuminen vaatii perheiltä ja kouluhenkilökunnalta. Metodologisesti tutkimukseni sijoittuu laadullisen tutkimuksen kentälle. Tutkimusmenetelmäksi valikoitui fenomenografia, jossa kiinnostuksen kohteena ovat ihmisten käsitykset ja arkiajattelu. Tavoitteenani on kuvata vanhempien käsitysten laadullisia eroja sekä nostaa esiin erilaisia ajattelutapoja. Fenomenografisessa tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan käsityksiä toisen asteen näkökul-masta. Tutkimuksen tulososuudessa käsittelen vanhempien käsityksiä koulun toiminnasta koulukiusaamiseen puuttumisessa. Fenomenografisen tutkimuksen analyysimenetelmiä soveltaen muodostin tutkimusaineistosta kolme pääkategoriaa: kouluyhteisön keinot puuttua koulukiusaamiseen, opettajan keinot puuttua koulukiusaamiseen sekä kouluyhteisön tekemä yhteistyö koulukiusaamistapauksissa. Tutkimustuloksista on nähtävissä, että vanhemmat kokevat koulukiusaamisen olevan koko yhteisöä koskettava asia. Opettajien ja muun henkilökunnan odotetaan sitoutuvan kiusaamisen vastaiseen toimintaan, heidän edellytetään panostavan kiu-saamisen ennaltaehkäisemiseen sekä luovan kouluun sellaisen ilmapiirin, joka ottaa huomioon kaikki osapuolet ja velvoittaa kiusaamattomuuteen. Tämä edellyttää sitoutumista myös vanhemmilta. Vanhemmat odottavat kouluilta voimakkaampaa yhteistyötä: koulujen tulisi tiedottaa kotia koulukiusaamisesta, ottaa huomioon lasten vanhempien roolin sekä tarjota vanhemmille enemmän mahdollisuuksia osallistua koulun kiusaamisen vastaiseen toimintaan

Does children’s fear matter?:Evaluating children’s positions in Finnish court decisions on stalking

Children are at particular risk when one parent is targeted by the other parent's stalking behaviors post‐separation. In this article, we explore how court decisions position children when assessing fear, distress, and unlawfulness in cases of parental stalking. The data comprised 127 court decisions on stalking that involved a relationship (dating, cohabitation, or marriage), separation/divorce, and one or more children. Using discourse analysis, we identified four categories in how children were positioned: (1) children relegated to the background, (2) children’s involvement recounted as part of the facts, (3) children’s involvement assessed as relevant because it affected the parent, and (4) children as agents or victims in their own right. The findings highlight a significant risk of losing sight of children when the focus is on parents, and our concern is that this may also contribute to children not receiving the support they need

Gränsområdessamarbetet mellan Finland och Norge samt hinder för samarbetet

Syftet med utredningsprojektet har varit att utreda samarbetet mellan myndigheterna inom social- och hälsovården, räddningsväsendet och undervisningsväsendet, tillgången till och användbarheten av tjänster inom dessa sektorer samt förutsättningarna för arbetskraftens rörlighet och verksamhetsförutsättningarna för näringsverksamhet i gränsområdet mellan Finland och Norge. Målet har varit att öka kunskapen om dessa frågor särskilt med tanke på invånarna och myndighetssamarbetet i kommunerna Enontekis, Ivalo, Sodankylä och Utsjoki. Särskild vikt har lagts vid omständigheter som gäller ordnandet av och tillgången till service på samiska. Utredningen visar att det finns olika typer av problem inom de olika sektorerna. Gränshindren i fråga om näringsverksamhet och arbetskraftens rörlighet påverkas av internationell lagstiftning, i synnerhet EU-lagstiftning, och fördrag. När det gäller arbetskraftens rörlighet beror en del av problemen också på att arbetsmarknaden och anställningsförhållandena regleras av nationell lagstiftning. Den lagstiftning som ska tillämpas på social- och hälsovårdstjänster och utbildning är till största delen nationell, vilket innebär att även problem i anslutning till dessa tjänster kan lösas på nationell och regional nivå. En del av problemen gäller myndigheternas praxis, t.ex. olika tolkningar av lagstiftningen och trög myndighetsverksamhet. Myndigheterna i Finland och Norge bör komma överens om gemensamma verksamhetsprinciper, enhetliga tolkningar av lagstiftningen och diverse praxis. Utredningen gav också vid handen att det finns problem med tillgången till information. När det gäller service för den samiska befolkningen visar utredningen att det råder brist på service och kulturella tjänster på samiska. Servicen på samiska som helhet bör samordnas mer centraliserat, och fungerande distanstjänster bör utvecklas för att förbättra tillgången till tjänster