Quantification of three macrolide antibiotics in pharmaceutical lots by HPLC: Development, validation and application to a simultaneous separation

A new validated high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method with rapid analysis time and high efficiency, for the analysis of erythromycin, azithromycin and spiramycin, under isocratic conditions with ODB RP18 as a stationary phase is described. Using an eluent composed of acetonitrile –2-methyl-2-propanol –hydrogenphosphate buffer, pH 6.5, with 1.5% triethylamine (33:7: up to 100, v/v/v), delivered at a flow-rate of 1.0 mL min-1. Ultra Violet (UV) detection is performed at 210 nm. The selectivity is satisfactory enough and no problematic interfering peaks are observed. The procedure is quantitatively characterized and repeatability, linearity, detection and quantification limits are very satisfactory. The method is applied successfully for the assay of the studied drugs in pharmaceutical dosage forms as tablets and powder for oral suspension. Recovery experiments revealed recovery of 97.13–100.28%

Determining the effect of drying time on phosphorus solubilization from three agricultural soils under climate change scenarios

Climate projections for the future indicate that the United Kingdom will experience hotter, drier summers and warmer, wetter winters, bringing longer dry periods followed by rewetting. This will result in changes in phosphorus (P) mobilization patterns that will influence the transfer of P from land to water. We tested the hypothesis that changes in the future patterns of drying–rewetting will affect the amount of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) solubilized from soil. Estimations of dry period characteristics (duration and temperature) under current and predicted climate were determined using data from the UK Climate Projections (UKCP09) Weather Generator tool. Three soils (sieved 25°C are predicted in some places and dry periods of 30 to 90 d extremes are predicted. Combining the frequency of projected dry periods with the SRP concentration in leachate suggests that this may result overall in increased mobilization of P; however, critical breakpoints of 6.9 to 14.5 d dry occur wherein up to 28% more SRP can be solubilized following a rapid rewetting event. The precise cause of this increase could not be identified and warrants further investigation as the process is not currently included in P transfer models

Availability of phosphate fertilizers in unlimed and limed acid soils as affected by wetting and air-drying

The interactions between air-drying and rewetting, and liming or timing of phosphate (P) fertilizer application on plant availability of monocalcium phosphate (MCP) or reactive phosphate rock (PR) fertilizers were studied under glasshouse conditions. A subsidiary isotopic exchange study was carried out using ³²P to determine the mechanism causing changes in the extractability of P following air-drying and rewetting. An additional study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that an increase in the degree of structural order of precipitated amorphous hydroxy-Al polymers may occur following air-drying of limed acid soil. Changes in P extractability and P adsorption were determined. Yield and P uptake responses were assessed using wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as the test plant. Two acid soils from the South Island of New Zealand, the Craigieburn silt loam and the Onepunga sandy loam, were used. The Onepunga sandy loam was selected to represent a soil with low P adsorption capacity and low initial exchangeable Al concentration. The Craigieburn silt loam soil was chosen to represent a soil with high P adsorption capacity, and high initial exchangeable A1 concentration. Liming decreased P extractability in the Craigieburn soil, but caused large increases in wheat yields and P uptake. Liming had no significant effect on P extractability or on wheat yields and P uptake in the Onepunga soil. The decrease in P extractability following liming in the Craigieburn soil was attributed to the formation of sparingly soluble Ca-P compounds. It was suggested that the major agronomic effect of liming this soil was to ameliorate factors due to soil acidity (e.g. A1 toxicity) and thus allow plants to utilize available P more effectively. Air-drying and rewetting significantly increased P extractability, and yields and P uptake of wheat in both soils. Yield and P uptake increases were greater for the added P treatments than for the control (zero added P) treatment in the Craigieburn soil. In the Onepunga soil, air-drying and rewetting caused greater increases in the control treatment compared to the added P treatment Yield and P uptake increases due to air-drying and rewetting were also greater in the limed soil treatment compared to the unlimed soil treatment in the Craigieburn soil. This interaction between air-drying and rewetting, and liming, on yield and P uptake was not observed in the Onepunga soil. It was suggested that liming ameliorated factors due to soil acidity in the Craigieburn soil and thus allowed the plants to utilize available P more effectively. The increase in P extractability following air-drying and rewetting was attributed to net mineralization of soil organic P. The hypothesis that air-drying a limed soil may increase the degree of structural order of precipitated amorphous hydroxy-A1 polymers was tested by raising the initial exchangeable A1 concentration of the low P-adsorbing Onepunga soil. The samples were subsequently limed, and subjected to air-drying and rewetting. Liming decreased the initial exchangeable A1 concentrations and this was attributed to the formation of amorphous hydroxy-A1 polymers, P adsorption was increased by liming. This result was attributed to the adsorption of P by the newly precipitated amorphous hydroxy-A1 polymers. Air-drying and rewetting decreased P adsorption in the soil samples where the initial exchangeable A1 concentrations were high. And had no effect on the sample with low initial exchangeable A1 concentration. A limed treatment of the high P-adsorbing Craigieburn soil (high initial exchangeable Al concentration) included in the study was unaffected by air-drying and rewetting. The decrease in P adsorption by the limed Onepunga soil samples with initially high exchangeable A1 concentrations indicated that an increase in the degree of structural order of precipitated amorphous hydroxy-A1 polymers might have occurred following air-drying and rewetting cycles. The isotopic exchange study supported the conclusion that the increased extractability of P following air-drying and rewetting resulted mainly from net mineralization of soil organic P. It was concluded that the release of P from net mineralization of soil organic P may mask an increase in P availability due to changes in the degree of structural order of precipitated amorphous hydroxy-A1 compounds. Air-drying and rewetting decreased ³²P specific activity of both the soil and plant P extracts. In addition, the results provided further evidence that the decrease in P extractability following liming the Craigieburn soil was caused by the formation of sparingly soluble Ca-P compounds. The interaction effect between air-drying and rewetting, and the timing of MCP application on the availability of P was investigated using limed treatments of both soils. The extractable P concentrations decreased with increasing time of P fertilizer reaction with the soils and this indicated the slow and continuing reactions of P fertilizer with soil. The decreases in extractable P concentrations were reflected by wheat yields and P uptake responses particularly in the Craigieburn soil. Air-drying and rewetting had no significant effect on the decreases of extractable P concentrations with time, a finding which indicated that air-drying and rewetting probably had no significant influence on the slow reactions. The interaction effects between air-drying and rewetting, and the timing of reactive PR fertilizer application on PR dissolution, P extractability, and wheat yields and P uptake were studied using unlimed samples of the Craigieburn soil. Two reactive PR fertilizers were used: North Carolina PR (NCPR) and Jordan PR (JPR). The extent of dissolution of NCPR increased with time, while that of JPR was unaffected by the timing of application. P extractability declined with increasing period of reaction of both fertilizers with soil, but this had no significant effects on yields and P uptake. The decline in extractable P concentrations with the period of PR reaction with soil indicated that application of PR to soils of high P retention several weeks before sowing may not increase P availability. Air-drying and rewetting had no significant effect on dissolution of both PR materials, but increased P extractability. The increases in the extractable P concentrations were attributed to the Birch effect. From an agronomic point of view, NCPR was a slightly better fertilizer than MCP, a finding which appeared to be caused by a slight liming effect resulting from NCPR application. In contrast, JPR was the least effective fertilizer

Mineralization of Soil Organic Phosphorus Caused by Drying and Rewetting: Isotopic Exchange Study

A radioisotope glasshouse experiment was carried out using 32P to investigate the cause of increased extractable P concentrations induced by drying and rewetting of soil, and lime-induced decrease in P extractability. An acid soil from the South Island of New Zealand was used. Air-drying and rewetting decreased activity and specific activity of 32P of both the soil and plant extracts. This finding indicated that the increased extractability of P following air-drying and rewetting of soil resulted mainly from net mineralization of soil organic P. Liming decreased the activity and specific activity of 32P in soil extracts, and this was attributed to the formation of calcium phosphate compounds in the limed soil treatments. In contrast, the activity and specific activity of 32P in plant samples were significantly (

Epidemiological analysis of an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (serotype SAT2) on a large dairy farm in Kenya using regular vaccination

During August–September 2012, an outbreak of Foot-and-mouth Disease (FMD) due to serotype Southern African Territories-2 (SAT2) occurred on a large, extensively grazed dairy farm in Nakuru County, Kenya. Over 29 days, 400/644 (62.1%) cattle were recorded as displaying clinical signs consistent with FMD. Out of the 18 management groups present, 17 had clinical cases (weighted mean incidence rate 3.5 per 100 cattle-days, 95% CI 2.4, 5.1; range 0.064–10.9). Transmission may have been encouraged when an infected group was moved to a designated isolation paddock. A four to five day minimum incubation period was apparent in five groups for which a point source exposure was evident. Further transmission was associated with the movement of individual animals incubating infection, use of a common dip and milking parlour, and grazing of susceptible groups in paddocks neighbouring to infectious cases. Animals over 18 months old appeared to be at highest risk of disease possibly due to milder clinical signs seen among younger animals resulting in reduced transmission or cases not being recorded. Cows with a breeding pedigree containing a greater proportion of zebu appeared to be at lower risk of disease. The outbreak occurred despite regular vaccination (three times per year) last performed approximately three months before the index case. Incidence risk by the lifetime number of doses received indicated limited or no vaccine effectiveness against clinical disease. Reasons for poor vaccine effectiveness are discussed with antigenic diversity of the SAT2 serotype and poor match between the field and vaccine strain as a likely explanation. Detailed field-derived epidemiological data based on individual animals are rarely presented in the literature for FMD, particularly in East-Africa and with the SAT2 serotype. This study provides a detailed account and therefore provides a greater understanding of FMD outbreaks in this setting. Additionally, this is the first study to provide field-derived evidence of poor vaccine effectiveness using a SAT2 vaccine. Further field-based measures of vaccine effectiveness in line with evaluation of human vaccines are needed to inform FMD control policy which has previously relied heavily upon experimental data and anecdotal experience