Mind: meet network. Emergence of features in conceptual metaphor.

As a human product, language reflects the psychological experience of man (Radden and Dirven, 2007). One model of language and human cognition in general is connectionism, by many linguists is regarded as mathematical and, therefore, too reductive. This opinion trend seems to be reversing, however, due to the fact that many cognitive researchers begin to appreciate one attribute of network models: feature emergence. In the course of a network simulation properties emerge that were neither inbuilt nor intended by its creators (Elman, 1998), in other words, the whole becomes more than just the sum of its parts. Insight is not only drawn from the network's output, but also the means that the network utilizes to arrive at the output.\ud It may seem obvious that the events of life should be meaningful for human beings, yet there is no widely accepted theory as to how do we derive that meaning. The most promising hypothesis regarding the question how the world is meaningful to us is that of embodied cognition (cf. Turner 2009), which postulates that the functions of the brain evolved so as to ‘understand’ the body, thus grounding the mind in an experiential foundation. Yet, the relationship between the body and the mind is far from perspicuous, as research insight is still intertwined with metaphors specific for the researcher’s methodology (Eliasmith 2003). It is the aim of this paper to investigate the conceptual metaphor in a manner that will provide some insight with regard to the role that objectification, as defined by Szwedek (2002), plays in human cognition and identify one possible consequence of embodied cognition.\ud If the mechanism for concept formation, or categorization of the world, resembles a network, it is reasonable to assume that evidence for this is to be sought in language. Let us then postulate the existence of a network mechanism for categorization and concept formation present in the human mind and initially developed to cope with the world directly accessible to the early human (i.e. tangible). Such a network would convert external inputs to form an internal, multi modal representation of a perceived object in the brain. The sheer amount of available information and the computational restrictions of the brain would force some sort of data compression, or a computational funnel. It has been shown that a visual perception network of this kind can learn to accurately label patterns (Elman, 1998). What is more, the compression of data facilitated the recognition of prototypes of a given pattern category rather than its peripheral representations, an emergent property that supports the prototype theory of the mental lexicon (cf. Radden and Dirven, 2007).\ud The present project proposes that, in the domain of cognition, the process of objectification, as defined by Szwedek (2002), would be an emergent property of such a system, or that if an abstract notion is computed by a neural network designed to cope with tangible concepts the data compression mechanism would require the notion to be conceptualized as an object to permit further processing. The notion of emergence of meaning from the operation of complex systems is recognised as an important process in a number of studies on metaphor comprehension. Feature emergence is said to occur when a non-salient feature of the target and the vehicle becomes highly salient in the metaphor (Utsumi 2005). Therefore, for example, should objectification emerge as a feature in the metaphor KNOWLEDGE IS A TREASURE, the metaphor would be characterised as having more\ud features of an object than either the target or vehicle alone. This paper focuses on providing a theoretical connectionist network based on the Elman-type network (Elman, 1998) as a model of concept formation where objectification would be an emergent feature. This is followed by a psychological experiment whereby the validity of this assumption is tested through a questionnaire where two groups of participants are asked to evaluate either metaphors or their components. The model proposes an underlying relation between the mechanism for concept formation and the omnipresence of conceptual metaphors, which are interpreted as resulting from the properties of the proposed network system.\ud Thus, an evolutionary neural mechanism is proposed for categorization of the world, that is able to cope with both concrete and abstract notions and the by-product of which are the abstract language-related phenomena, i.e. metaphors. The model presented in this paper aims at providing a unified account of how the various types of phenomena, objects, feelings etc. are categorized in the human mind, drawing on evidence from language.\ud References:\ud Szwedek, Aleksander. 2002. Objectification: From Object Perception To Metaphor Creation. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and K. Turewicz (eds). Cognitive Linguistics To-day, 159-175. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.\ud Radden, Günter and Dirven, René. 2007. Cognitive English Grammar. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company\ud Eliasmith, Chris. 2003. Moving beyond metaphors: understanding the mind for what it is. Journal of Philosophy. C(10):493- 520.\ud Elman, J. L. et al. 1998. Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press\ud Turner, Mark. 2009. Categorization of Time and Space Through Language. (Paper presented at the FOCUS2009 conference "Categorization of the world through language". Serock, 25-28 February 2009).\ud Utsumi, Akira. 2005. The role of feature emergence in metaphor appreciation, Metaphor and Symbol, 20(3), 151-172

Interrelations between consumption and wealth in Poland

This paper studies the long-run relationship between consumption, labour income and asset wealth in Poland. Within cointegrated VAR model dynamic responses of the variables in the system to shocks are studied. In addition series are decomposed into permanent and transitory components. Main conclusion of this paper is that deviations of the three variables from their estimated long-run relationship are better explained with fluctuations of labour income than assets. The paper offers a tentative explanation of this finding. Additionally, the magnitude of the asset wealth effect in Poland is calculated and compared with other studies for European countries and for the U.S.wealth, cointegration, Beveridge-Nelson decomposition, impulse responses

Responses of the Polish economy to demand and supply shocks under alternative fiscal policy rules

Recent experiences of many countries during the crisis restored the important dilemma that fiscal policymakers face of how to alleviate the demand contraction while ensuring sustainability of public finances in the long-term.\\ In this paper we study the consequences of the demand and supply shocks for Poland under alternative policy scenarios. Using a macroeconometric model of the Polish economy, we analyse the response of the economy to shocks under several fiscal policy rules. We try to answer the questions which fiscal rule works best in terms of public finance sustainability and business cycle fluctuations stabilization while taking into account the source of shocks to the economy.\\ We found that structural balance rule and expenditure rule act counter-cyclically in the whole simulation period, but at the same time the pace at which they stabilize public debt is quite slow.fiscal rules, model simulations, demand shocks, supply shocks

Are abstract concepts like dinosaur feathers? Objectification as a conceptual tool: evidence from language and gesture of English and Polish native speakers

Studies based on the Contemporary Theory of Metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999) usually identify conceptual metaphors by analysing linguistic expressions and creating a post hoc interpretation of the findings. This method has been questioned for a variety of reasons, including its circularity (Müller, 2008), lack of falsifiability (Vervaeke & Kennedy, 1996, 2004), and lack of predictive power (Ritchie, 2003). It has been argued that CTM requires additional constraints to improve its applicability for empirical research (Gibbs, 2011; Ritchie, 2003). This paper sets out to propose additional methodological structure to CTM, a theory of conceptual metaphor in which much of abstract thought is generated by metaphorical mapping from embodied experience (Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez & Pérez Hernández, 2011). Introducing Objectification Theory defined by Szwedek (2002, 2007, 2011) ameliorates a number of methodological issues in CTM. First, the embodiment claim of CTM in its current form cannot be empirically proven incorrect (Vervaeke & Kennedy, 2004) as any mapping within it is possible (although only some actually happen). Objectification introduces pre-metaphorical structure of the kind suggested by Glucksberg (2001), constraining source and target domain selection, predicting which mappings are more likely to happen. Second, while many claim that metaphors trace back to a literal concept based on embodied physical experience (Gibbs, Costa Lima, & Francozo, 2004), it is unclear what criteria are used to define „physical”. Metaphorical domains are often described using the terms „abstract” and „concrete”, Objectification proposes objective criteria for deciding whether a concept is experientially grounded. Finally, Objectification provides grounds for introducing a hierarchical framework for metaphor typology, preventing post-hoc addition of metaphor types if and when suitable for the explanation of a phenomenon; thus increasing the consistency of the CTM framework, both internally and with other cognitive science disciplines. This thesis focuses on providing evidence for Objectification Theory and identifying its applications in metaphor and gesture research

Are abstract concepts like dinosaur feathers?

Ewolucja ludzkiego układu nerwowego pozwoliła nam na wykonywanie niezwykle skomplikowanych czynności takich jak obliczenia matematyczne, analizy gospodarcze czy choćby napisanie tej książki. Mimo to wciąż nie jesteśmy pewni jak i dlaczego człowiek nabył zdolność abstrakcyjnego myślenia. Jedna z teorii sugeruje, że myślenie abstrakcyjne i konkretne opierają się na tym samym mechanizmie: doświadczeniu. Według tej teorii, nazwanej teorią ucieleśnionego poznania, świat rozumiemy dzięki doświadczeniom fizycznym. Kiedy opisujemy jakiś argument jako "chwiejny" albo pogląd jako "bezpodstawny" to korzystamy z doświadczeń, które zdobyliśmy bawiąc się kolckami jako dzieci. W tej książce zadaję postawione przez psychologa Daniela Casasanto pytanie: „czy pojęcia abstrakcyjne są jak pióra dinozaurów”. Jakie procesy ewolucyjne doprowadziły do tego, że jesteśmy w stanie opisać nawet bardzo abstrakcyjne zagadnienia w odniesieniu do konkretnych zjawisk? Przedstawiając wyniki badań nad mową i gestem osób widzących, słabowidzących oraz niewidomych, staram się pokazać, że podstawy zrozumienia wielu pojęć abstrakcyjnych szukać można w geście

Investigating the dual function of gesture in blind and visually impaired children. (Poster)

Co-speech gesture research explores the role of gesture in communication, i.e. whether gestures are intended for the listener/audience (e.g. Mol et al. 2009; Alibali et al., 2001; Holler & Beattie, 2003) or support the process of speech production (Kita & Davies, 2009; Hostetter et al. 2007). To investigate the role of gesture in communication we turn to blind and visually impaired speakers whose opportunities to learn gestures visually are limited (cf. Iverson & Goldin-Meadow 1998; 2001). The present study aims at providing insight into the nature and occurrence of co-speech gestures in spontaneous speech: between blind, severely visually impaired and sighted individuals. Participants were asked to read a short story (either in print or in Braille) and to re-tell it to the interviewer. Care was taken to establish an environment in which the participants would feel safe and would not refrain from gesturing for fear of hurting themselves or others. We predicted that if blind speakers did not gesture as much as their visually impaired peers it would suggest that gesture is to some extent acquired through visual instruction. However, following Iverson et al. (2000) and Iverson and Goldin-Meadow (1998) we hypothesized that despite the absence of visual gestural stimuli during the language-learning process gesture is present in the language of the blind participants - but there would be differences in gesture form, types and functions. The present study aims at exploring and categorizing these differences, with regard to how sensory references are visible in the gestures of participants with various degrees of sight impairment. Regardless of dissimilarities, the presence of gesture in both the blind and impaired individuals points towards a dual function of co-speech gestures, i.e. a device for both the speaker and their interlocutor

Znaczenie badawcze gestu w analizie procesów poznawczych osób niewidomych i niedowidzących

Gestykulacja jest wszechobecną cechą komunikacji wśród ludzi, choć występuje również u małp człekokształtnych. Gest daleki jest jednak od bycia przypadkową serią ruchów rąk. Według teoretyków nauk kognitywnych gest i język to dwa uzupełniające się źródła wiedzy na temat procesów umysłowych leżących u ich podstawy. Jeżeli więc gest, podobnie jak język, jest odzwierciedleniem struktury umysłowej człowieka, z której się wywodzi można założyć, iż analiza gestu stanowić będzie istotne źródło danych potwierdzających lub obalających teorie na temat natury konceptualizacji oraz kategoryzacji; w szczególności teorię ucieleśnionego poznania oraz opartą na niej kognitywną teorię metafory. Badanie języka jako ekspresji procesów rozgrywających się na poziomie umysłu — dokładniej rzecz biorąc — ucieleśnionego umysłu jest fundamentalnym założeniem lingwistyki kognitywnej. Niniejszy artykuł przygląda się powiązaniu gestu, języka oraz zjawisk umysłowych, ze szczególną uwagą traktując metaforyczny gest osób niewidomych oraz niedowidzących. Pokazując konceptualne oraz społeczne konotacje występowania różnych typów gestu autorki starają się wykazać, iż jego analiza stanowić może istotny przyczynek do rozwoju kognitywnej teorii poznania.Narodowe Centrum Nauki (grant 2011/01/N/HS6/04050

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with anterolateral stabilization by a modified Lemaire technique in adolescent professional football player: a case report

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear is one of the most common injuries in professional athletes. Additional procedures, such as anterolateral ligament reconstruction and lateral extra-articular tenodesis attempt to reduce rotational instability, the most common cause of re-injury in patients with a nonisolated ACL tear. Case study: A 17-year-old professional football player suffered a right knee injury in a direct hit to the lateral side of the knee. Magnetic resonance imaging showed anterior cruciate ligament tear and lateral knee structures soft tissue contusion. Due to the injury of the lateral structures and the increased risk of ACL rerupture, it was decided to perform ACL reconstruction with additional anterolateral stabilization by a modified Lemaire technique without additional screw fixation in the area of the lateral femoral epicondyle, which could damage the epiphyseal plate and, concurrently, impair bone growth. Conclusion: The addition of lateral extra-articular tenodesis by a modified Lemaire technique prevents rotational instability in a patient with expressed pivotshift before the surgery, without overconstraint of the knee and additional damage to the epiphyseal plate

One-stage bilateral total hip replacement using direct anterior approach via „bikini“ incision: a case report

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a musculoskeletal condition that is affecting an increasing number of individuals due to an aging population. The aim of our case report was to present one-stage bilateral efficient direct anterior total hip replacement via „bikini” incision, to describe the course of the operation, as well as the advantages and the disadvantages of this procedure. Case study: A 38-year old patient, without any comorbidities, presented with severe OA of both hips. Due to co-existing OA on both joints and the patient’s motivation and desire for faster recovery, he underwent a one-stage bilateral hip replacement using a direct anterior approach via a „bikini” incision. Physical therapy began immediately after the surgery and the patient was verticalized on the first postoperative day. Eight days after the procedure, the patient was discharged from the hospital. Conclusion: One-stage total hip replacement should be considered for patients with OA of both hips to reduce the postoperative hospital stay and the need for long-term rehabilitation