Organizational Citizenship Behavior- Individual or Organizational Citizenship Behavior- Organization: Does the Underlying Motive Matter?

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) is considered behavior that benefits others, but is not a part of the employee’s job description. Research has indicated that OCB can be divided into two categories, behavior that is directed towards other individuals (OCBI) and behavior that is directed towards the organization (OCBO). Research has also suggested that there are three different motives behind OCB, impression management, prosocial values, and organizational concern. This study examines the relationship between the motives and the type of OCB that is performed. The results failed to indicate that motives matter in determining which type of OCB is performed. Additionally, participants in all three motives were more likely to engage in OCBO behavior than in OCBI behavior

Victories are Not Enough

Since the early stages of World War II, militaries in general, and the U.S. Army in particular, have studied the German way of war, specifically as practiced in the 20th century. While acknowledging that Germany—and before that nation came into existence, Prussia—produced some excellent armies, major problems with the German way of war must not be ignored. Despite the military prowess of Germany, it lost both of the major wars of the 20th century. The author explores the reasons why a nation with such a strong military reputation was unable to win its wars and achieve its goals. He emphasizes that military power, tactical and operational brilliance, and victories in the field can easily be squandered if a nation has failed to set achievable goals and develop strategies to reach them. This failure should not be lost on modern nations as they proceed into the 21st century.https://press.armywarcollege.edu/monographs/1369/thumbnail.jp

Gates to Gregg High Voltage Transmission Line Study

The usefulness of LANDSAT data in the planning of transmission line routes was assessed. LANDSAT digital data and image processing techniques, specifically a multi-date supervised classification aproach, were used to develop a land cover map for an agricultural area near Fresno, California. Twenty-six land cover classes were identified, of which twenty classes were agricultural crops. High classification accuracies (greater than 80%) were attained for several classes, including cotton, grain, and vineyards. The primary products generated were 1:24,000, 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 scale maps of the classification and acreage summaries for all land cover classes within four alternate transmission line routes

Southern hemispheric halon trends and global halon emissions, 1978–2011

The atmospheric records of four halons, H-1211 (CBrClF2), H-1301 (CBrF3), H-2402 (CBrF2CBrF2) and H-1202 (CBr2F2), measured from air collected at Cape Grim, Tasmania, between 1978 and 2011, are reported. Mixing ratios of H-1211, H-2402 and H-1202 began to decline in the early to mid-2000s, but those of H-1301 continue to increase up to mid-2011. These trends are compared to those reported by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and AGAGE (Advanced Global Atmospheric Experiment). The observations suggest that the contribution of the halons to total tropospheric bromine at Cape Grim has begun to decline from a peak in 2008 of about 8.1 ppt. An extrapolation of halon mixing ratios to 2060, based on reported banks and predicted release factors, shows this decline becoming more rapid in the coming decades, with a contribution to total tropospheric bromine of about 3 ppt in 2060. Top-down global annual emissions of the halons were derived using a two-dimensional atmospheric model. The emissions of all four have decreased since peaking in the late 1980s–mid-1990s, but this decline has slowed recently, particularly for H-1301 and H-2402 which have shown no decrease in emissions over the past five years. The UEA (University of East Anglia) top-down model-derived emissions are compared to those reported using a top-down approach by NOAA and AGAGE and the bottom-up estimates of HTOC (Halons Technical Options Committee). The implications of an alternative set of steady-state atmospheric lifetimes are discussed. Using a lifetime of 14 yr or less for H-1211 to calculate top-down emissions estimates would lead to small, or even negative, estimated banks given reported production data. Finally emissions of H-1202, a product of over-bromination during the production process of H-1211, have continued despite reported production of H-1211 ceasing in 2010. This raises questions as to the source of these H-1202 emissions

The atmospheric impacts of monoterpene ozonolysis on global stabilised Criegee intermediate budgets and SO2 oxidation : experiment, theory and modelling

The gas-phase reaction of alkenes with ozone is known to produce stabilised Criegee intermediates (SCIs). These biradical/zwitterionic species have the potential to act as atmospheric oxidants for trace pollutants such as SO₂, enhancing the formation of sulfate aerosol with impacts on air quality and health, radiative transfer and climate. However, the importance of this chemistry is uncertain as a consequence of limited understanding of the abundance and atmospheric fate of SCIs. In this work we apply experimental, theoretical and numerical modelling methods to quantify the atmospheric impacts, abundance and fate of the structurally diverse SCIs derived from the ozonolysis of monoterpenes, the second most abundant group of unsaturated hydrocarbons in the atmosphere. We have investigated the removal of SO₂ by SCIs formed from the ozonolysis of three atmospherically important monoterpenes (<i>α</i>-pinene, <i>β</i>-pinene and limonene) in the presence of varying amounts of water vapour in large-scale simulation chamber experiments that are representative of boundary layer conditions. The SO₂ removal displays a clear dependence on water vapour concentration, but this dependence is not linear across the range of [H₂O] explored. At low [H₂O] a strong dependence of SO₂ removal on [H₂O] is observed, while at higher [H₂O] this dependence becomes much weaker. This is interpreted as being caused by the production of a variety of structurally (and hence chemically) different SCIs in each of the systems studied, which displayed different rates of reaction with water and of unimolecular rearrangement or decomposition. The determined rate constants, <i>k</i>(SCI+H₂O), for those SCIs that react primarily with H₂O range from 4 to 310  ×  10⁻¹⁵ cm³ s⁻¹. For those SCIs that predominantly react unimolecularly, determined rates range from 130 to 240 s⁻¹. These values are in line with previous results for the (analogous) stereo-specific SCI system of <i>syn</i>-/<i>anti</i>-CH₃CHOO. The experimental results are interpreted through theoretical studies of the SCI unimolecular reactions and bimolecular reactions with H₂O, characterised for <i>α</i>-pinene and <i>β</i>-pinene at the M06-2X/aug-cc-pVTZ level of theory. The theoretically derived rates agree with the experimental results within the uncertainties. A global modelling study, applying the experimental results within the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model, suggests that &gt; 97 % of the total monoterpene-derived global SCI burden is comprised of SCIs with a structure that determines that they react slowly with water and that their atmospheric fate is dominated by unimolecular reactions. Seasonally averaged boundary layer concentrations of monoterpene-derived SCIs reach up to 1.4  ×  10⁴ cm⁻³ in regions of elevated monoterpene emissions in the tropics. Reactions of monoterpene-derived SCIs with SO₂ account for &lt; 1 % globally but may account for up to 60 % of the gas-phase SO₂ removal over areas of tropical forests, with significant localised impacts on the formation of sulfate aerosol and hence the lifetime and distribution of SO₂

A new analysis of debris mitigation and removal using networks

Modelling studies have shown that the implementation of mitigation guidelines, which aim to reduce the amount of new debris generated on-orbit, is an important requirement of future space activities but may be insufficient to stabilise the near-Earth debris environment. The role of a variety of mitigation practices in stabilising the environment has been investigated over the last decade, as has the potential of active debris removal (ADR) methods in recent work. We present a theoretical approach to the analysis of the debris environment that is based on the study of networks, composed of vertices and edges, which describe the dynamic relationships between Earth satellites in the debris system. Future projections of the 10 cm and larger satellite population in a non-mitigation scenario, conducted with the DAMAGE model, are used to illustrate key aspects of this approach. Information from the DAMAGE projections are used to reconstruct a network in which vertices represent satellites and edges encapsulate conjunctions between collision pairs. The network structure is then quantified using statistical measures, providing a numerical baseline for this future projection scenario. Finally, the impact of mitigation strategies and active debris removal, which can be mapped onto the network by altering or removing edges and vertices, can be assessed in terms of the changes from this baseline. The paper introduces the network methodology, highlights the ways in which this approach can be used to formalise criteria for debris mitigation and removal. It then summarises changes to the adopted network that correspond to an increasing stability and changes that represent a decreasing stability of the future debris environment

A single-blinded, single-centre, controlled study in healthy adult smokers to identify the effects of a reduced toxicant prototype cigarette on biomarkers of exposure and of biological effect versus commercial cigarettes

BACKGROUND: Despite universal acceptance that smoking is harmful, a substantial number of adults continue to smoke. The development of potential reduced exposure products (more recently termed modified risk tobacco products) has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of tobacco smoking. This trial is designed to investigate whether changes in toxicant exposure after switching from a commercial to reduced toxicant prototype (RTP) cigarette (7 mg International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) tar yield) can be assessed by measurement of biomarkers and other factors. The primary objective is to descriptively assess changes in selected biomarkers of exposure (BoE) and biomarkers of biological effect (BoBE) within participants and within and between groups after switching. Secondary objectives are to assess similarly changes in other biomarkers, quality of life, smoking behaviours, physiological measures, mouth-level exposure to toxicants and sensory perception. METHODS/DESIGN: This trial will assess current smokers, ex-smokers and never-smokers in a single-centre single-blind, controlled clinical trial with a forced-switching design and in-clinic (residential) and ambulatory (non-residential) periods. Smokers will be aged 23–55 years (minimum legal smoking age plus 5 years) and non-smokers 28–55 years (minimum legal smoking age plus 5 years, plus minimum 5 years since last smoked). Smokers will be allowed to smoke freely at all times. We will assess changes in selected BoE and BoBE and effective dose in urine and blood after switching. Creatinine concentrations in serum, creatinine clearance in urine, cotinine concentration in saliva, diaries and collection of spent cigarette filters will be used to assess compliance with the study protocol. Mouth-level exposure to toxins will be assessed by filter analysis. DISCUSSION: Data from this study are expected to improve scientific understanding of the effects of RTP cigarettes on BoE and BoBE, and give insights into study design for clinical assessment of potential MRTPs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered in the Current Controlled Trials database under the reference ISRCTN81286286

School climate, emotions, and relationships : children’s experiences of well-being in the Midwestern U.S.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore children’s perceptions of school relationships, and the ways in which those relationships supported or undermined children’s emotional well-being (EWB). This sub-study of a multinational comparative investigation of children’s well-being followed a semi-structured qualitative interview protocol. Rural and urban children (age 8 to 13, N = 23) from the Midwestern U.S. completed the interview and mapping exercise used to explore aspects of and influences on their subjective well-being (including school). Phenomenological analyses of interview transcripts focused on 1) the essence of children’s EWB (including emotional valence and arousal) within the context of school relationships and 2) children’s perception of the impact of school relationships on their EWB. A seasonal metaphor captured the essence of children’s experiences of EWB, which naturally clustered into four themes based on emotional intensity and valance: spring, summer, fall, and winter. Children’s emotional experiences with teachers and peers were similarly represented in the themes, with the exception of winter emotions, which diverged. Children expressed complex, multilayered emotions within the school setting that were connected to the quality of school relationships. Findings are discussed in the context of improving school relationships and climate to support children’s EWB.peer-reviewe