Epithelial contribution to the profibrotic stiff microenvironment and myofibroblast population in lung fibrosis

The contribution of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to the profibrotic stiff microenvironment and myofibroblast accumulation in pulmonary fibrosis remains unclear. We examined EMT-competent lung epithelial cells and lung fibroblasts from control (fibrosis-free) donors or patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), which is a very aggressive fibrotic disorder. Cells were cultured on profibrotic conditions including stiff substrata and TGF-beta 1, and analyzed in terms of morphology, stiffness, and expression of EMT/myofibroblast markers and fibrillar collagens. All fibroblasts acquired a robust myofibroblast phenotype on TGF-beta 1 stimulation. Yet IPF myofibroblasts exhibited higher stiffness and expression of fibrillar collagens than control fibroblasts, concomitantly with enhanced FAK(Y397) activity. FAK inhibition was sufficient to decrease fibroblast stiffness and collagen expression, supporting that FAK(Y397) hyperactivation may underlie the aberrant mechanobiology of IPF fibroblasts. In contrast, cells undergoing EMT failed to reach the values exhibited by IPF myofibroblasts in all parameters examined. Likewise, EMT could be distinguished from nonactivated control fibroblasts, suggesting that EMT does not elicit myofibroblast precursors either. Our data suggest that EMT does not contribute directly to the myofibroblast population, and may contribute to the stiff fibrotic microenvironment through their own stiffness but not their collagen expression. Our results also support that targeting FAK(Y397) may rescue normal mechanobiology in IPF

A Sizer model for cell differentiation in Arabidopsis thaliana root growth

Plant roots grow due to cell division in the meristem and subsequent cell elongation and differentiation, a tightly coordinated process that ensures growth and adaptation to the changing environment. How the newly formed cells decide to stop elongating becoming fully differentiated is not yet understood. To address this question, we established a novel approach that combines the quantitative phenotypic variability of wild-type Arabidopsis roots with computational data from mathematical models. Our analyses reveal that primary root growth is consistent with a Sizer mechanism, in which cells sense their length and stop elongating when reaching a threshold value. The local expression of brassinosteroid receptors only in the meristem is sufficient to set this value. Analysis of roots insensitive to signaling and of roots with gibberellin biosynthesis inhibited suggests distinct roles of these hormones on cell expansion termination. Overall, our study underscores the value of using computational modeling together with quantitative data to understand root growth

Brassinosteroids role in arabidopsis root development : theoretical and experimental approaches

[eng] This PhD thesis represents an advance in the present understanding of the spatiotemporal control of model plant Arabidopsis thaliana root growth and development. The size and structure of a living organism are tightly controlled by the coordination between several highly dynamic molecular and cellular processes, such as cell division, movement, growth and deformation. At tissue level, a mesoscopic description of the system and these processes can be used, in terms of mechanical forces and energy minimization (see (Hamant & Traas, 2010) for a review focused on plants). How cells decide to switch from a cellular process to another is a fundamental question to understand the growth and shape of an organ. Because of the thermal fluctuations and finite number of molecules involved in the molecular reactions, cells take presumably these decisions in a stochastic manner, which makes it challenging to understand how morphogenesis generates organs with characteristic shapes and sizes. Plant roots grow due to cell division in the meristem and subsequent cell elongation up to terminal differentiation. The pleiotropic phenotypes of the short-root mutants available make it difficult to univocally assess which mechanism sets the transition from elongation to final differentiation. To elucidate it, in this thesis we use a novel approach based on the quantitative information associated to the phenotypic variability of wild type roots together with computational modeling of different mechanisms. In Chapter 1 we introduced the already published work in the field of root and meristem growth, at experimental and computational level. In Chapter 2 we have employed theoretical and computational models to analyze individual isogenic Arabidopsis seedlings and to quantify their heterogeneity, which we have quantified, together with their mean values. The quantification of heterogeneity has been crucial since it allowed the identification of dynamical mechanisms involved in Arabidopsis root growth. By analyzing these mechanisms in WT plants and Brassinosteroids (BRs) mutants, we found that growth defects in the BRs loss of function mutant are generated by defects related to cell differentiation. To deepen into this result, in Chapter 3 we investigated the mechanism through which cells decide to differentiate and achieve their final length. In this sense, we adopted a computational approach, combined with plant variability analysis, to test three putative mechanisms: Ruler (Band et al, 2012; De Vos et al, 2014), Timer (De Vos et al, 2014; Mähönen et al, 2014) and Sizer (Grieneisen et al, 2012). We compared the simulated data, based on the values extracted in Chapter 2, with experiments, and we found that Arabidopsis thaliana primary root uses a Sizer mechanism based on measuring cell sizes for final cell differentiation. We show this mechanism translates into specific correlations among phenotypic traits and explains why root growth is proportional to the meristem activity and displays mature cells of stereotyped length. We challenged our model by evaluating such correlations in a well-known BR signaling short-root mutant. We further show that BR signaling at the meristem is sufficient to recover some of the correlation slopes and hence root growth, yet it alters the mechanism. Together, our results establish a theoretical quantitative framework for stationary root growth and underscore the value of using computational modeling together with quantitative data. In Chapter 4 we analyzed the coupling between meristematic activity and telomere length by applying a novel quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization to measure telomere length with tissue resolution in the primary root. The implementation of a new image analysis protocol contributed to revealing a telomere distribution map, with telomere length gradients along the meristem, and the longest telomeres localized in the stem cell niche (Gonzalez-Garcia et al, 2015). We applied this method to WT plants, several generations of telomerase deficient mutants, mutants with larger telomeres and cell differentiation mutants. Furthermore, we generated transgenic plants to check the localization of telomerase and we evaluated the relationship between telomere length and resistance to DNA damage. We also evaluated computationally the telomere distributions observed in WT and telomerase deficient mutants and we simulated the telomere dynamics which can generate such distributions. The conclusions of this thesis were contextualized in Chapter 5.[spa] El tamaño y la estructura de un organismo vivo son el resultado de una coordinación entre procesos moleculares y celulares, altamente dinámicos, como la división, el movimiento, el crecimiento y la deformación. A nivel de tejido se puede usar una descripción mesoscópica del sistema y estos procesos, habitualmente en términos de fuerzas mecánicas y minimización de la energía (dirigirse a (Hamant & Traas, 2010) para una revisión sobre plantas). Por tanto, la morfogénesis y formación de órganos en Eucariotas son investigadas tanto por la Biología de desarrollo, como por la Física de la materia blanda (Cross & Greenside, 2009; Cross & Hohenberg, 1993; Murray, 2002). El crecimiento global de una planta es fuertemente relacionado con el crecimiento y desarrollo de su raíz. Las raíces crecen debido a sucesivas divisiones celulares en el meristemo, seguidas por elongación y diferenciación celular. Para poder estudiar el desarrollo de la raíz es imprescindible conocer qué determina a las células tomar las decisiones de parar de dividir y elongarse o parar de elongarse y diferenciarse. Debido a las fluctuaciones térmicas y el número finito de moléculas que participan en las reacciones moleculares, es de esperar que estas decisiones no son tomadas por todas las células a la vez, sino de una manera estocástica, lo que hace dificil entender cómo la morfogénesis basada en un comportamiento celular estocástico puede generar formas y tamaños característicos de órganos. En este contexto, esta tesis usa modelos matemáticos para cuantificar y generar predicciones sobre la dinámica de crecimiento de la raíz de Arabidopsis thaliana, que han sido testeadas mediante un abordaje experimental. En el Capítulo 2 de esta tesis hemos diseñado un marco teórico para describir el crecimiento estacionario de la raíz y hemos analizado la variabilidad existente entre raíces isogénicas. En el Capítulo 3 hemos usado un modelo matemático para investigar el mecanismo que las células usan para decidir cuándo parar de elongarse y adquirir su tamaño final. Basándonos en las predicciones de este modelo, hemos analizado la variabilidad intrínseca de las plantas silvestres y hemos identificado relaciones específicas entre los parámetros de crecimiento, que nos ayudaron a descartar posibles modelos. En el Capítulo 4 hemos cuantificado la longitud telomérica en las células de la raíz y evaluado funcionalidades biológicas. Nuestro análisis mostró una distribución heterogénea, que impulsó la modelización matemática de la dinámica telomérica, basada en las fluctuaciones y el comportamiento dinámico de la longitud telomérica

New Perspectives of Therapies in Osteogenesis Imperfecta—A Literature Review

(1) Background: Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a rare skeletal dysplasia characterized as a heterogeneous disorder group with well-defined phenotypic and genetic features that share uncommon bone fragility. The current treatment options, medical and orthopedic, are limited and not efficient enough to improve the low bone density, bone fragility, growth, and mobility of the affected individuals, creating the need for alternative therapeutic agents. (2) Methods: We searched the medical database to find papers regarding treatments for OI other than conventional ones. We included 45 publications. (3) Results: In reviewing the literature, eight new potential therapies for OI were identified, proving promising results in cells and animal models or in human practice, but further research is still needed. Bone marrow transplantation is a promising therapy in mice, adults, and children, decreasing the fracture rate with a beneficial effect on structural bone proprieties. Anti-RANKL antibodies generated controversial results related to the therapy schedule, from no change in the fracture rate to improvement in the bone mineral density resorption markers and bone formation, but with adverse effects related to hypercalcemia. Sclerostin inhibitors in murine models demonstrated an increase in the bone formation rate and trabecular cortical bone mass, and a few human studies showed an increase in biomarkers and BMD and the downregulation of resorption markers. Recombinant human parathormone and TGF-β generated good results in human studies by increasing BMD, depending on the type of OI. Gene therapy, 4-phenylbutiric acid, and inhibition of eIF2α phosphatase enzymes have only been studied in cell cultures and animal models, with promising results. (4) Conclusions: This paper focuses on eight potential therapies for OI, but there is not yet enough data for a new, generally accepted treatment. Most of them showed promising results, but further research is needed, especially in the pediatric field

Single-cell telomere-length quantification couples telomere length to meristem activity and stem cell development in Arabidopsis

Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein caps that protect chromosome ends assuring cell division. Single-cell telomere quantification in animals established a critical role for telomerase in stem cells, yet, in plants, telomere-length quantification has been reported only at the organ level. Here, a quantitative analysis of telomere length of single cells in Arabidopsis root apex uncovered a heterogeneous telomere-length distribution of different cell lineages showing the longest telomeres at the stem cells. The defects in meristem and stem cell renewal observed in tert mutants demonstrate that telomere lengthening by TERT sets a replicative limit in the root meristem. Conversely, the long telomeres of the columella cells and the premature stem cell differentiation plt1,2 mutants suggest that differentiation can prevent telomere erosion. Overall, our results indicate that telomere dynamics are coupled to meristem activity and continuous growth, disclosing a critical association between telomere length, stem cell function, and the extended lifespan of plants

Single-Cell Telomere-Length Quantification Couples Telomere Length to Meristem Activity and Stem Cell Development in Arabidopsis

Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein caps that protect chromosome ends assuring cell division. Single-cell telomere quantification in animals established a critical role for telomerase in stem cells, yet, in plants, telomere-length quantification has been reported only at the organ level. Here, a quantitative analysis of telomere length of single cells in Arabidopsis root apex uncovered a heterogeneous telomere-length distribution of different cell lineages showing the longest telomeres at the stem cells. The defects in meristem and stem cell renewal observed in tert mutants demonstrate that telomere lengthening by TERT sets a replicative limit in the root meristem. Conversely, the long telomeres of the columella cells and the premature stem cell differentiation plt1,2 mutants suggest that differentiation can prevent telomere erosion. Overall, our results indicate that telomere dynamics are coupled to meristem activity and continuous growth, disclosing a critical association between telomere length, stem cell function, and the extended lifespan of plants

Epithelial contribution to the profibrotic stiff microenvironment and myofibroblast population in lung fibrosis

The contribution of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to the profibrotic stiff microenvironment and myofibroblast accumulation in pulmonary fibrosis remains unclear. We examined EMT-competent lung epithelial cells and lung fibroblasts from control (fibrosis-free) donors or patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), which is a very aggressive fibrotic disorder. Cells were cultured on profibrotic conditions including stiff substrata and TGF-beta 1, and analyzed in terms of morphology, stiffness, and expression of EMT/myofibroblast markers and fibrillar collagens. All fibroblasts acquired a robust myofibroblast phenotype on TGF-beta 1 stimulation. Yet IPF myofibroblasts exhibited higher stiffness and expression of fibrillar collagens than control fibroblasts, concomitantly with enhanced FAK(Y397) activity. FAK inhibition was sufficient to decrease fibroblast stiffness and collagen expression, supporting that FAK(Y397) hyperactivation may underlie the aberrant mechanobiology of IPF fibroblasts. In contrast, cells undergoing EMT failed to reach the values exhibited by IPF myofibroblasts in all parameters examined. Likewise, EMT could be distinguished from nonactivated control fibroblasts, suggesting that EMT does not elicit myofibroblast precursors either. Our data suggest that EMT does not contribute directly to the myofibroblast population, and may contribute to the stiff fibrotic microenvironment through their own stiffness but not their collagen expression. Our results also support that targeting FAK(Y397) may rescue normal mechanobiology in IPF