Hypotetiske konstrukter er en nødvendighet, og derfor bør atferdsanalytikere være mer opptatt av begrepsvaliditet

Utgangspunktet for artikkelen er Svartdals «Hypotetiske konstrukter innenfor atferdsanalyse: Finnes de? Ja, men der lever de dessverre ikke i beste velgående». Vi er enige med Svartdal i at atferdsanalyse, uunngåelig, er preget av hypotetiske konstrukter, abstrakte begreper og samlebetegnelser. Siden atferdsanalysen inkluderer hypotetiske konstrukter, bør vi i konseptuell, eksperimentell og anvendt atferdsanalyse være mer opptatt av begrepsanalyse, begrepsslutninger eller operasjonaliseringer som gjør begrepene eller konstruktene målbare. Begrepsvaliditet, eller mer eller mindre gyldige slutninger fra et teoretisk nivå med konstrukter til et empirisk nivå med målinger av konstruktene, burde være sentralt i atferdsanalysen. I anvendt atferdsanalyse bør operasjonaliseringen av både tiltak og effekt diskuteres i større grad. Vi tar avstand fra en ekstrem form for operasjonisme – vi mener at de konstruktene vi bør være interessert i prinsipielt sett kan måles på ulikt vis, men målingene har alltid en andel feil inkludert. Det er viktig å minimere feilene gjennom stadig bedre begrepsanalyser og operasjonaliseringer. Stimulert av Svartdals hovedmoment om at hypotetiske konstrukter finnes i atferdsanalyse, og med utgangspunkt i Cook og Campbells validitetstypologi, utvider vi diskusjonen om hypotetiske konstrukter til å angå begrepsvaliditet i atferdsanalysen. Oppsummert er vår påstand at begrepsvaliditet er mer relevant for atferdsanalysen enn antatt, og begrepsvaliditeten bør få bedre levekå

Tegnøkonomi og påvirkning av oppmøte etter friminutt i en barneskoleklasse

Lærings-og undervisningshemmende atferd er de vanligste formene for problematferd i skolen, og inkluderer at elevene kommer for sent til timene. Tegnøkonomi er en intervensjon som har vist gode resultater på flere arenaer. Tegnøkonomi er tidligere benyttet for å påvirke elever til å komme raskere inn i klasserommet etter friminutt. Intervensjonene i denne studien ble gjennomført i to skoleklasser. Elevene brukte unødvendig lang tid på å komme til ro på plassene etter friminuttene. Data er samlet inn etter en plan i tråd med en ABAB-design. Intervensjonen innebar å levere tokens hver gang minst 80 % av deltakerne nådde kriteriet for forsterkning. Tokens ble vekslet inn i foretrukne aktiviteter og materielle stimuli etter et VR8 skjema. Data viser at tiltaket hadde god effekt. I både eksperiment A og eksperiment B vises en rask endring fra basislinjebetingelsen til intervensjonsbetingelsen; gjennomsnittlig antall minutter fra det ringer inn til deltakerne sitter rolig på stolene sine går ned

Opplæring i ikke-eksperimentelle funksjonelle analyser eller FAK-analyser

Funksjonelle analyser er metoder som avdekker sammenhenger mellom atferd og miljøhendelser. En variant er deskriptive funksjonelle analyser der observatørene registrerer hendelser i miljøet i forkant og etterkant av den angitte atferden. Denne varianten kalles FAK-analyser (Foranledning-Atferd-Konsekvens). I studien undersøker vi om en opplæringspakke har effekt på deltagernes ferdigheter i FAK-analyser. Deltagerne hadde ikke tidligere mottatt systematisk opplæring i FAK-analyser. Deltagerne gjennomførte FAK-analyser basert på video-opptak av personer med utfordrende atferd. Første opplæringssekvens viser lav effekt, og data fra observatørene kunne ikke brukes til å trekke slutninger om atferdsfunksjoner. En ny og forenklet opplæring ble gjennomført. Deltagerne ble testet som tidligere, men skulle kun beskrive foranledninger og konsekvenser av atferd og ikke trekke slutninger om atferdens funksjon. Andelen av FAK-analyser som var korrekt utfylte etter andre opplæring var 90 %. Studien indikerer at det er mulig å lære opp personalet raskt i observasjon og objektive beskrivelser av foranledninger og konsekvenser av atferd

"To work, or not to work, that is the question" – recent trends and avenues for research on presenteeism

This position paper brings together recent and emerging developments in the field of presenteeism. A critical synthesis of the evidence is needed due to persisting conceptual and methodological challenges as well as the increased volume of research in the field. This paper integrates emerging evidence and critical thinking into three areas: (1) concept, (2) measurement and methodological issues, and (3) the context of presenteeism. First, due to the variety of existing definitions, competing understandings, as well as the notion of positive presenteeism, it is important to reconsider the notion of presenteeism. Second, it is important to reflect on the measurement of the act of presenteeism and the productivity loss associated with that. Third, following the call to investigate presenteeism in specific contexts, it is important to explain the social, occupational, cross-cultural aspects, as well as the contemporary workplace changes. Based on this critical synthesis, we conclude by identifying recommendations for future research on presenteeism

Enchytraeus albidus Microarray: Enrichment, Design, Annotation and Database (EnchyBASE)

Enchytraeus albidus (Oligochaeta) is an ecologically relevant species used as standard test organisms for risk assessment. Effects of stressors in this species are commonly determined at the population level using reproduction and survival as endpoints. The assessment of transcriptomic responses can be very useful e.g. to understand underlying mechanisms of toxicity with gene expression fingerprinting. In the present paper the following is being addressed: 1) development of suppressive subtractive hybridization (SSH) libraries enriched for differentially expressed genes after metal and pesticide exposures; 2) sequencing and characterization of all generated cDNA inserts; 3) development of a publicly available genomic database on E. albidus. A total of 2100 Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) were isolated, sequenced and assembled into 1124 clusters (947 singletons and 177 contigs). From these sequences, 41% matched known proteins in GenBank (BLASTX, e-value≤10-5) and 37% had at least one Gene Ontology (GO) term assigned. In total, 5.5% of the sequences were assigned to a metabolic pathway, based on KEGG. With this new sequencing information, an Agilent custom oligonucleotide microarray was designed, representing a potential tool for transcriptomic studies. EnchyBASE (http://bioinformatics.ua.pt/enchybase/) was developed as a web freely available database containing genomic information on E. albidus and will be further extended in the near future for other enchytraeid species. The database so far includes all ESTs generated for E. albidus from three cDNA libraries. This information can be downloaded and applied in functional genomics and transcription studies

Systematic review of the evidence relating FEV1 decline to giving up smoking

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The rate of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁) decline ("beta") is a marker of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease risk. The reduction in beta after quitting smoking is an upper limit for the reduction achievable from switching to novel nicotine delivery products. We review available evidence to estimate this reduction and quantify the relationship of smoking to beta.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Studies were identified, in healthy individuals or patients with respiratory disease, that provided data on beta over at least 2 years of follow-up, separately for those who gave up smoking and other smoking groups. Publications to June 2010 were considered. Independent beta estimates were derived for four main smoking groups: never smokers, ex-smokers (before baseline), quitters (during follow-up) and continuing smokers. Unweighted and inverse variance-weighted regression analyses compared betas in the smoking groups, and in continuing smokers by amount smoked, and estimated whether beta or beta differences between smoking groups varied by age, sex and other factors.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Forty-seven studies had relevant data, 28 for both sexes and 19 for males. Sixteen studies started before 1970. Mean follow-up was 11 years. On the basis of weighted analysis of 303 betas for the four smoking groups, never smokers had a beta 10.8 mL/yr (95% confidence interval (CI), 8.9 to 12.8) less than continuing smokers. Betas for ex-smokers were 12.4 mL/yr (95% CI, 10.1 to 14.7) less than for continuing smokers, and for quitters, 8.5 mL/yr (95% CI, 5.6 to 11.4) less. These betas were similar to that for never smokers. In continuing smokers, beta increased 0.33 mL/yr per cigarette/day. Beta differences between continuing smokers and those who gave up were greater in patients with respiratory disease or with reduced baseline lung function, but were not clearly related to age or sex.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The available data have numerous limitations, but clearly show that continuing smokers have a beta that is dose-related and over 10 mL/yr greater than in never smokers, ex-smokers or quitters. The greater decline in those with respiratory disease or reduced lung function is consistent with some smokers having a more rapid rate of FEV₁decline. These results help in designing studies comparing continuing smokers of conventional cigarettes and switchers to novel products.</p

Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence relating smoking to COPD, chronic bronchitis and emphysema

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Smoking is a known cause of the outcomes COPD, chronic bronchitis (CB) and emphysema, but no previous systematic review exists. We summarize evidence for various smoking indices.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Based on MEDLINE searches and other sources we obtained papers published to 2006 describing epidemiological studies relating incidence or prevalence of these outcomes to smoking. Studies in children or adolescents, or in populations at high respiratory disease risk or with co-existing diseases were excluded. Study-specific data were extracted on design, exposures and outcomes considered, and confounder adjustment. For each outcome RRs/ORs and 95% CIs were extracted for ever, current and ex smoking and various dose response indices, and meta-analyses and meta-regressions conducted to determine how relationships were modified by various study and RR characteristics.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Of 218 studies identified, 133 provide data for COPD, 101 for CB and 28 for emphysema. RR estimates are markedly heterogeneous. Based on random-effects meta-analyses of most-adjusted RR/ORs, estimates are elevated for ever smoking (COPD 2.89, CI 2.63-3.17, n = 129 RRs; CB 2.69, 2.50-2.90, n = 114; emphysema 4.51, 3.38-6.02, n = 28), current smoking (COPD 3.51, 3.08-3.99; CB 3.41, 3.13-3.72; emphysema 4.87, 2.83-8.41) and ex smoking (COPD 2.35, 2.11-2.63; CB 1.63, 1.50-1.78; emphysema 3.52, 2.51-4.94). For COPD, RRs are higher for males, for studies conducted in North America, for cigarette smoking rather than any product smoking, and where the unexposed base is never smoking any product, and are markedly lower when asthma is included in the COPD definition. Variations by sex, continent, smoking product and unexposed group are in the same direction for CB, but less clearly demonstrated. For all outcomes RRs are higher when based on mortality, and for COPD are markedly lower when based on lung function. For all outcomes, risk increases with amount smoked and pack-years. Limited data show risk decreases with increasing starting age for COPD and CB and with increasing quitting duration for COPD. No clear relationship is seen with duration of smoking.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The results confirm and quantify the causal relationships with smoking.</p