Language proficiency testing: a comparative analysis of IELTS and TOEFL

There is a general belief that British and North American EFL proficiency tests represent radically different approaches to language test development. The North American tradition in language testing is heavily based on psychometric properties of tests such as reliability, and concurrent and predictive validity, whereas the British tradition is more focused on the specification of test content and expert judgement. Language proficiency tests, in either the .American or British tradition, are designed to serve different purposes, so they may not be comparable in terms of defined purposes. Nevertheless, the term 'language proficiency', no matter how it is defined, implies that we are referring to a monolithic concept. In the real world, test results are often used for screening purposes; the candidates' ability to cope with the future language medium is predicted by the proficiency criterion. If it is the case that language proficiency tests are used for similar purposes, i.e., measuring the general language ability of the candidates, comparability of such tests is a legitimate matter.This study compares two English language proficiency test batteries: TOEFL and IELTS. The main objectives of the research were to investigate the extent to which TOEFL and IELTS are comparable in terms of: a) the operational definitions of language proficiency on which the two tests are based, b) the degree to which the two tests provide similar information concerning the abilities of the testees. Analysis of test content suggests that both batteries are based on the notion that proficiency is divisible by skill (e.g. reading) and element of language (e.g. syntax), thus we have tests of reading, writing, listening, speaking, as well as tests of grammar and vocabulary. However, the tests differ in their representation of the scope of skills and elements of language proficiency. The analysis also shows that the TOEFL differs from the IELTS in its method of testing. Despite these differences in test methods and scope, to a great extent both tests measure a common aspect of the subjects' language ability, therefore their internal structures are unifactorial. A g-factor (general language proficiency) comprises much of the total variance in both tests. Additional information provided by each test regarding the competence in reading, listening, writing, and knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, does not seem to contribute much to the total variance. A content analysis of the two tests indicates that, in fact, there are more similarities between the reading and listening comprehension sections of the two batteries than differences. This is supported by the factor analysis of the test scores

Evaluation of Neurofibromatosis Gene Expression in Non-Hereditary Breast Cancer

Background: Breast cancer is the most common cause of death in women. Studies have shown that changes in neurofibromatosis gene expression can cause breast cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the change of neurofibromatosis type 1 gene expression in non-hereditary breast cancer using real time PCR. Materials and Methods: In this study, 160 tissue samples were collected from patients following ethical principles. After lysis of tissues, extraction of RNA and synthesis of cDNA was performed. The amount of gene expression changes was investigated. Results: The results showed that the level of NF1 gene expression was dependent on the stages of the disease and as the stages progress, the level of expression of this gene showed a significant decrease. Conclusion: The use of gene biomarkers can help to diagnose and treat diseases faster. Along with examining other candidate genes, using NF1 gene expression analysis in breast cancer patients can be a suitable option for diagnosing the stages of disease progression

Spontaneous Uterine Perforation due to Pyometra Presenting as Acute Abdomen

Spontaneous perforation of the uterus is rare, its incidence being about 0.01% − 0.05%. We report a rare case of diffuse peritonitis caused by spontaneously perforated pyometra. A 63-year-old woman with severe abdominal pain was admitted to our hospital. Laparotomy was performed because of the suspicion of gastrointestinal perforation with generalized peritonitis. At laparotomy, about 900 mL of pus was found in the peritoneal cavity. There were no abnormal findings in the alimentary tract, liver, or gallbladder. A total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy was performed. Pathological investigation of the surgical specimen revealed endometritis and myometritis of the uterus; but there was no evidence of malignancy, and the cervical canal was patent. Although spontaneously perforated pyometra is rare, a perforated pyometra should therefore also be considered when elderly women present with acute abdominal pain

A Review on the Role of Mitochondrial DNA Mutations in Cancer

Mitochondria implement various cellular functions, including energy production through the electron transport chain by oxidative phosphorylation mechanism. These respiratory chains consist of several complexes and protein subunits which are encoded by nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Due to mutation susceptibility and repair limitation, more aberrations have occurred in mitochondrial DNA in comparison to nuclear DNA. Given the fact that mitochondrial DNA lacks introns, mutations almost occur in the coding sequence, which comprises a direct impact on its functions. Emerging evidence indicates that mutations in the mitochondrial DNA led to the production of reactive oxygen species, disrupted apoptosis, and tumor development. Studies reported various somatic and germline variants in mitochondrial DNA related to tumorigenesis. The D-loop region which is the starting point for replication and transcription of mitochondrial DNA is the most prevalent site of somatic mutations in solid tumors. The D-loop mutations also cause copy number variations which are gaining interest in studies of solid tumors including breast cancer, colon cancer, hepatocellular carcinomas, and prostate cancer. Most studies have reported a mitochondrial DNA reduction which subsequently prevents apoptosis and promotes metastasis. The mitochondrial DNA region-specific haplogroups are also involved in the sequence variations due to processes such as genetic drift and adaptive selection. This review article discusses the biology and function of mitochondria and related genes. By explanation of mitochondrial dysfunction caused by different kinds of alterations, we attempt to elucidate the role of mitochondria in tumorigenesis. Prominently published articles in this field were reviewed and the role of germline and somatic mutations of mitochondrial DNA have been investigated in common cancers. *Corresponding Author: Shirin Shahbazi; Email: [email protected]; ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7634-5350 Please cite this article as: Dahi F, Mortezanejad S, Nakhaee S, Geranpayeh L, Shahbazi S. A Review on the Role of Mitochondrial DNA Mutations in Cancer. Arch Med Lab Sci. 2021;7:1-12 (e18). https://doi.org/10.22037/amls.v7.3473

‘She says, he says’: Does the sex of an instructor interact with the grammatical gender of targets in a perspective-taking task?

Aims and objectives: It has been claimed that grammatical gender can influence the perception of objects as being potentially more ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’. The present study investigated effects of facilitation or interference on object selection by speakers whose L1 marks grammatical gender even when selecting objects in an L2 (English) which does not mark grammatical gender. Additionally, and in order to establish whether bilingualism itself influenced performance owing to a proposed bilingual advantage in inhibitory control, we investigated whether bilinguals would be more efficient than monolinguals at taking the allocentric perspective and switching between perspectives. Methodology: Participants were asked to select objects by an instructor whose biological sex (and voice) was either congruent or incongruent with the grammatical gender of the object to be selected. Two groups of 16 bilinguals each were recruited on the basis of whether their L1s marked for grammatical gender or not, and a further group of 16 monolingual English speakers were tested as a control. Data and analysis: Groups were compared by means of mixed-design repeated measures ANOVAs with response times for target selections as the dependent variables. Findings: When tested in English, bilinguals whose L1 marked grammatical gender showed no effect of gender congruency in this task, nor did bilinguals outperform monolinguals in taking the allocentric perspective or in perspective switching. Originality: For the first time, potential grammatical gender effects were investigated on a task where the fast and accurate processing of real male and female voices is fundamental to the efficiency of object selection performance. Implications: The present findings are interpreted as evidence that the effects of L1 grammatical gender on tasks performed in an L2 do not extend to tasks where the link between biological sex and grammatical gender is not made explicit. </jats:sec

Linguistic immersion and structural effects on the bilingual brain: a longitudinal study

Learning and using additional languages can result in structural changes in the brain. However, the time course of these changes, as well as the factors the predict them, are still not well understood. In this longitudinal study we test the effects of bilingual immersion on brain structure of adult sequential bilinguals not undergoing any language training, who were scanned twice, three years apart. We observed significant increases in grey matter volume in the lower left cerebellum, mean white matter diffusivity in the frontal cortex, and reshaping of the left caudate nucleus and amygdala and bilateral hippocampus. Moreover, both prior length of immersion and L2 age of acquisition were significant predictors of volumetric change in the cerebellum. Taken together, these results indicate that bilingualism-induced neurological changes continue to take place across the lifespan and are strongly related to the quantity and quality of bilingual immersion, even in highly-immersed adult bilingual populations

Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affect brain structure and function

Learning and using an additional language is shown to have an impact on the structure and function of the brain, including in regions involved in cognitive control and the connections between them. However, the available evidence remains variable in terms of the localization, extent and trajectory of these effects. Variability likely stems from the fact that bilingualism has been routinely operationalized as a categorical variable (bilingual/monolingual), whereas it is a complex and dynamic experience with a number of potentially deterministic factors affecting neural plasticity. Here we present the first study investigating the combined effects of experience-based factors (EBFs) in bilingual language use on brain structure and functional connectivity. EBFs include an array of measures of everyday usage of a second language in different types of immersive settings (e.g., amount of use in social settings). Analyses reveal specific adaptations in the brain, both structural and functional, correlated to individual EBFs and their combined effects. Taken together the data show that the brain adapts to be maximally efficient in the processing and control of two languages, although modulated ultimately by individual language experience

Healthy Male Individuals Possess Higher Plasma HER-2 Level than Females

Considering HER2 as one of the well-known biomarkers in the cancer field, and published articles regarding serumlevels of HER2, in this paper we tried to highlight the issue that most studies don’t stratify the HER-2 concentrationof individuals in terms of gender. In this brief survey, healthy individuals with no prior non-communicable diseaseswere categorized as males (n=34) and females (n=43), and all samples were evaluated for plasma HER-2 levelsat once. Surprisingly, the plasma level of HER-2 of healthy male individuals (mean= 2.28 ± 0.21 ng/mL) wassignificantly (P<0.0001) higher than the plasma level of HER-2 of healthy females (mean: 0.06 ± 0.09 ng/mL),with no overlap. Therefore, we suggest that more studies are required to re-check the cutoff values for HER-2plasma levels based on gender since the clinical implications of a unique HER-2 cutoff for both genders may beseriously concerning

An fMRI study on the processing of long-distance wh-movement in a second language

Recent behavioural evidence from second language (L2) learners has suggested native-like processing of syntactic structures, such as long-distance wh-dependencies in L2. The underlying processes are still largely debated, while the available neuroimaging evidence has been restricted to native (L1) processing. Here we test highly proficient L2-learners of English in an fMRI experiment incorporating a sentence reading task with long-distance wh-dependencies, including abstract syntactic categories (empty traces of wh-movement). Our results suggest that long-distance wh-dependencies impose increased working memory (WM) demands, compared to control sentences of equal length, demonstrated as increased activation of the superior and middle temporal gyri bilaterally. Additionally, our results suggest abstract syntactic processing by the most immersed L2 learners, manifested as comparable left temporal activity for sentences with wh-traces and sentences with no wh-movement. These findings are discussed against current theoretical proposals about L2 syntactic processing