Hepatitis C : an emerging concern

Hepatitis C has surfaced worldwide as a formidable concern to public health. Recent developments have sharpened methods of serological detectability, epidemiological study and patient treatment. In the light of the global situation, this article briefly presents known local epidemiology about hepatitis C derived from routine data and personal communication from some key workers. The occurrence of a serious, potentially progressive, transmissible condition in a young population will incur high-costs to patients, contacts and care services. The article concludes by highlighting the areas offering greatest scope to check this condition through prevention and patient management.peer-reviewe

Tree-mediated methane emissions from tropical and temperate peatlands

Methane production and transport processes in peatlands are fairly well understood, but growing evidence for emission of methane through trees has highlighted the need to revisit methane transport processes. In wetland trees, morphological adaptations such as development of hypertrophied lenticels, aerenchyma and adventitious roots in response to soil anoxia mediates gas transport, transporting both oxygen from the atmosphere to oxygen-deprived roots and soil-produced methane from the root-zone to the atmosphere. Although, tree-mediated methane emissions from temperate tree species have been confirmed, methane emissions from tropical tree species and processes that control tree-mediated methane emissions remain unclear. This study explains the role of trees in transporting soil-produced methane to the atmosphere and uncovers the principal mechanisms of tree-mediated methane emissions. Methane emissions from eight tropical tree species and two temperate tree species were studied in situ. The mechanisms and controls on tree-mediated methane emissions were investigated using three year old common alder (Alnus glutinosa; 50 trees) grown under two artificially controlled water-table positions. Methane fluxes from whole mesocosms, the soil surface and tree stems were measured using static closed chambers. Both temperate and tropical tree species released significant quantities of methane, with tropical trees dominating ecosystem level methane fluxes. In temperate peatlands, both the methane gas transport mechanism and quantity of methane emitted from stems is tree-species dependent. In Alnus glutinosa, no correlations were observed between stomatal behaviour and tree-mediated methane emissions, however, stem methane emissions were positively correlated with both stem lenticel density and dissolved soil methane concentration. In Alnus glutinosa, no emissions were observed from leaf surfaces. The results demonstrate that exclusion of tree-mediated methane emissions from flux measurement campaigns in forested peatlands will lead to an underestimation of ecosystem-wide methane emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions from non-recyclable residual household waste within domestic wheeled bins

The evolution of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from waste treatment processes (e.g. landfill & composting) are well documented (Chen and Lin, 2008), frequently quantified (Lou and Nair, 2009) and currently represented within climate change models (Ciais et al., 2013). Conversely, the understanding of GHG emissions from household waste (pre-collection) is largely unknown and confined to composting studies (e.g. Andersen et al., 2010), or calculating the calorific value/elemental content (Komilis et al., 2012) and biological methane potential (Alibardi and Cossu, 2015) of municipal solid waste. Generating a better understanding of GHG fluxes from non-recycled residual household waste before collection may help to further refine climate models and inform policy makers regarding the best collection strategy to mitigate GHG emissions

Temperature response of ex-situ greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peatlands: Interactions between forest type and peat moisture conditions

Climate warming is likely to increase carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions from tropical wetlands by stimulating microbial activity, but the magnitude of temperature response of these CO2 and CH4 emissions, as well as variation in temperature response among forest types, is poorly understood. This limits the accuracy of predictions of future ecosystem feedbacks on the climate system, which is a serious knowledge gap as these tropical wetland ecosystems represent a very large source of greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. two-thirds of CH4 emissions from natural wetlands are estimated to be from tropical systems). In this study, we experimentally manipulated temperatures and moisture conditions in peat collected from different forest types in lowland neotropical peatlands in Panama and measured how this impacted ex-situ CO2 and CH4 emissions. The greatest temperature response was found for anaerobic CH4 production (Q10 = 6.8), and CH4 consumption (mesic conditions, Q10 = 2.7), while CO2 production showed a weaker temperature response (Q10 2 production was found under flooded oxic conditions. Net emissions of CO2 and CH4 were greatest from palm forest under all moisture treatments. Furthermore, the temperature response of CH4 emissions differed among dominant vegetation types with the strongest response at palm forest sites where fluxes increased from 42 ± 25 to 2166 ± 842 ng CH4 g−1 h−1 as temperatures were raised from 20 to 35 °C. We conclude that CH4 fluxes are likely to be more strongly impacted by higher temperatures than CO2 fluxes but that responses may differ substantially among forest types. Such differences in temperature response among forest types (e.g. palm vs evergreen broad leaved forest types) need to be considered when predicting ecosystem greenhouse gas responses under future climate change scenarios

The Impact of Simulated Sulfate Deposition on Peatland Testate Amoebae

Peatlands subjected to sulfate deposition have been shown to produce less methane, believed to be due to competitive exclusion of methanogenic archaea by sulfate-reducing bacteria. Here, we address whether sulfate deposition produces impacts on a higher microbial group, the testate amoebae. Sodium sulfate was applied to experimental plots on a Scottish peatland and samples extracted after a period of more than 10 years. Impacts on testate amoebae were tested using redundancy analysis and Mann-Whitney tests. Results showed statistically significant impacts on amoebae communities particularly noted by decreased abundance of Trinema lineare, Corythion dubium, and Euglypha rotunda. As the species most reduced in abundance are all small bacterivores we suggest that our results support the hypothesis of a shift in dominant prokaryotes, although other explanations are possible. Our results demonstrate the sensitivity of peatland microbial communities to sulfate deposition and suggest sulfate may be a potentially important secondary control on testate amoebae communities

Geomorphology of the north-eastern coast of Gozo (Malta, Mediterranean Sea)

The paper presents a geomorphological map of the north-eastern coast of the Island of Gozo (Malta) integrating inland and offshore areas at the scale 1:15,000. The map derives from the integration of different methods, such as aerial photo interpretation, field surveys and analysis of seafloor bathymetry. The landforms identified on land were shaped by coastal, fluvial, karst and gravity-induced processes, and some of them prolong on the seafloor. Most of the submerged landforms appear to have been modelled in subaerial conditions during sea-level lowstands, having been sealed by the rising sea in post-glacial times. Two sketches accompany the Main Map showing the type and distribution of coastal geomorphotypes and the land cover of the area

Self-reported access to health care, communicable diseases, violence and perception of legal status among online transgender identifying sex workers in the UK.

OBJECTIVES: Transgender-identifying sex workers (TGISWs) are among the most vulnerable groups but are rarely the focus of health research. Here we evaluated perceived barriers to healthcare access, risky sexual behaviours and exposure to violence in the United Kingdom (UK), based on a survey of all workers on BirchPlace, the main transgender sex commerce website in the UK. STUDY DESIGN: The study design used in the study is an opt-in text-message 12-item questionnaire. METHODS: Telephone contacts were harvested from BirchPlace's website (n = 592 unique and active numbers). The questionnaire was distributed with Qualtrics software, resulting in 53 responses. RESULTS: Our survey revealed significant reported barriers to healthcare access, exposure to risky sexual behaviours and to physical violence. Many transgender sex workers reportedly did not receive a sexual screening, and 28% engaged in condomless penetrative sex within the preceding six months, and 68% engaged in condomless oral sex. 17% responded that they felt unable to access health care they believed medically necessary. Half of the participants suggested their quality of life would be improved by law reform. CONCLUSIONS: TGISWs report experiencing a high level of risky sexual behaviour, physical violence and inadequate healthcare access. Despite a National Health System, additional outreach may be needed to ensure access to services by this population.ECD

HIV continuum of care in Europe and Central Asia.

OBJECTIVES: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) supports countries to monitor progress in their response to the HIV epidemic. In line with these monitoring responsibilities, we assess how, and to what extent, the continuum of care is being measured across countries. METHODS: The ECDC sent out questionnaires to 55 countries in Europe and Central Asia in 2014. Nominated country representatives were questioned on how they defined and measured six elements of the continuum. We present our results using three previously described frameworks [breakpoints; Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) 90-90-90 targets; diagnosis and treatment quadrant]. RESULTS: Forty countries provided data for at least one element of the continuum. Countries reported most frequently on the number of people diagnosed with HIV infection (37; 93%), and on the number in receipt of antiretroviral therapy (ART) (35; 88%). There was little consensus across countries in their approach to defining linkage to, and retention in, care. The most common breakpoint (>19% reduction between two adjacent elements) related to the estimated number of people living with HIV who were diagnosed (18 of 23; 78%). CONCLUSIONS: We present continuum data from multiple countries that provide both a snapshot of care provision and a baseline against which changes over time in care provision across Europe and Central Asia may be measured. To better inform HIV testing and treatment programmes, standard data collection approaches and definitions across the HIV continuum of care are needed. If countries wish to ensure an unbroken HIV continuum of care, people living with HIV need to be diagnosed promptly, and ART needs to be offered to all those diagnosed

Reply to comment by C. Morhange, C. Flaux, P.A. Pirazzoli, M.B. Carre on \u201cHolocene Sea level Change in Malta\u201d

The pits of Birzebbugia are located near the present-day mean sea level, and some are partially submerged. They were dated using pottery discovered in an archaeological site close to the coast, dated to the Bronze Age (Zammit, 1928; Abela, 1999). As they have been interpreted as sites for the retting of flax, during their utilization they should have remained dry and the sea could not submerge them. This is the reason why these structures are not directly related to the sea level, as suggested by Biolchi et al. (2011), so they represent an upper limit.peer-reviewe

Methane emissions from forested closed landfill sites: Variations between tree species and landfill management practices

Trees in natural and managed environments can act as conduits for the transportation of methane (CH4) from below ground to the atmosphere, bypassing oxidation in aerobic surface soils. Tree stem emissions from landfill sites exhibit large temporal and spatial variability in temperate environments and can account for approximately 40% of the total surface CH4 flux. Emission variability was further investigated in this study by measuring CH4 and CO2 fluxes from landfill sites with different management strategies and varying tree species over a 7-month period. Stem and soil measurements were obtained using flux chambers and an off-axis integrated cavity output spectroscopy analyser. Analysis showed average stem and soil CH emissions varied significantly (p4 fluxes from sites with no clay cap but gas extraction, clay cap and gas extraction, and no clay cap and no gas extraction were 1.4 ± 0.4 μg m-2 h-1, 47.2 ± 19.0 μg m-2 h-1, and 111.9 ± 165.1 μg m-2 h-1, respectively. There was no difference in stem CH4 fluxes between species at each site, suggesting environmental conditions (waterlogging) and site age had a greater influence on both stem and soil fluxes. These results highlight the importance of management practices, and the resultant environmental conditions, in determining CH4 emissions from historic landfill sites