A process for effective desertification mitigation

in these ecosystems can easily result in widespread and severe land degradation and thus desertification. Combined with global issues such as climate change, economic disparities, migration, and competing claims on land, this often leads to a vicious cycle of aridity, land degradation, and productivity loss. In addition to the harsh environmental conditions limiting land productivity, the socio-economic situation in drylands can pose challenges as well, given that these regions are often characterised by remoteness, marginality, lowproductivity farming, weak institutions, and even conflict. Managing land sustainably under such conditions is a challenge which concerns land users and other stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers alike. Desertification research has traditionally focused on degradation assessments, whereas prevention and mitigation strategies have not sufficiently been emphasised, although the concept of sustainable land management (SLM) is increasingly being acknowledged (Chapter 1). The present research was embedded in the EU FP6 research project DESIRE (Desertification Mitigation and Remediation of Land – a Global Approach for Local Solutions; 2007–2012). DESIRE aimed to establish promising alternative land use and management strategies in 17 areas affected by land degradation and desertification around the world. Project work was based on close collaboration of scientists with local stakeholder groups. The study sites served as a global laboratory for developing and applying new methods of science – stakeholder collaboration and trialling traditional and innovative approaches to combating desertification. Chapter 2 offers a compilation and review of a number of methodological approaches to monitoring and assessing SLM which to date have been little reported in the literature. Lessons are drawn from these experiences, and common elements and future pathways are identified as a basis for a global approach. The local-level methods of the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) framework serve to catalogue SLM technologies and approaches as case studies. This tool was included in the local-level Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) as well as in the DESIRE project. Complementary site-based approaches can enhance an ecological process-based understanding of SLM variation. At national and sub-national levels, a joint WOCAT/LADA/DESIRE spatial assessment based on land use systems can be used to identify the status and trends of degradation and SLM, including causes, drivers, and impacts on ecosystem services. Expert consultation is combined with scientific evidence and, where necessary, enhanced with secondary data and indicator databases. Key lessons learnt include the need for a multi-scale approach, for using common indicators, and for drawing on a variety of information sources, including scientific data and local knowledge, by means of participatory methods. Methodological consistency allows for cross-scale analyses, and findings can be analysed and documented for use by decision-makers at various levels. Effective monitoring and assessment of SLM (e.g. for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, UNCCD) requires a comprehensive methodological framework agreed upon and adopted by the major players. Although a variety of conservation measures are already applied at the local level, they are not adequately recognised, evaluated, and shared by land users, technicians, researchers, and policymakers. Likewise, collaboration between researchers and implementers is often insufficient. Chapter 3 presents a new methodological framework for a participatory process of appraising and selecting desertification mitigation strategies, and outlines first experiences from its application in the DESIRE project. The methodology – a key product developed within this PhD study – combines a collective learning and decision-making approach with the use of evaluated global best practices. It moves through a concise process in three parts, starting out with the identification of land degradation and locally applied solutions in a stakeholder workshop, followed by an assessment of local solutions using a standardised evaluation tool, and ending with the joint selection of promising strategies for implementation with the help of a decision support tool. A preliminary analysis of the application of the first part of the methodology showed that the initial stakeholder workshop resulted in a good basis for stakeholder cooperation and yielded promising land conservation practices for further assessment. Study site research teams appreciated the results, which they considered particularly valuable because urgent issues and promising options had emerged from joint reflection. The methodology was found to be suitable for initiating mutual learning among different stakeholder groups, as well as for integrating local and scientific knowledge. The thus identified SLM practices were then documented and evaluated by local researchers in collaboration with land users and using the internationally recognised and standardised WOCAT questionnaires. These in-depth assessments of 30 technologies and 8 approaches are analysed and compared across the DESIRE study sites in Chapter 4, highlighting key issues of SLM in drylands. Careful attention is paid to features which specifically characterise SLM in drylands and make SLM practices especially useful regarding the identified threats. Among the achievements attributed to the documented technologies, those mentioned most were diversified and enhanced production, as well as better management of water and soil degradation, whether by means of water harvesting, by improving soil moisture, or by reducing runoff. Demonstrating a favourable local-scale cost–benefit relationship was found to be crucial to improving people’s livelihoods and preventing further outmigration. However, it was also found that more research is needed to support the case study authors’ assessments of SLM impacts as well as to provide a solid rationale for investments in SLM. There are many and often competing options for SLM, and each must be assessed – and sometimes negotiated – prior to implementation. This makes SLM a classic multi-stakeholder issue which concerns individual and community land users, agricultural advisors, natural resource managers, government authorities, civil society, and researchers alike. Selecting appropriate SLM technologies for implementation thus requires an approach that is capable of integrating the diverse knowledge, perceptions, and judgements of the different stakeholders involved. Time and resource constraints often impede the development of contextualised, targeted, and sophisticated decision support systems. The DESIRE research project provided an excellent opportunity to develop and test a generic decision support methodology, using it to assist the study site teams in selecting, together with stakeholders in a stakeholder workshop, the most promising SLM option(s) for subsequent test implementation in the field (Chapter 5). Special attention was paid to the screening of local innovations, the selection and adaptation of potential SLM technologies, and the decision-making process determining which options are to be implemented. Chapter 5 reviews the application of the DESIRE decision support methodology in a variety of biophysical and socioeconomic contexts, finding it to be well-structured, comprehensive, and relatively easy to apply. The builtin global database of SLM options provided knowledge from various environments, while the use of simple software allowed for easy calculation and visualisation of results. The scoring and negotiation of each option’s sustainability forced stakeholders to consider and acknowledge each other’s positions and opinions, ensuring that the final choice was well-accepted. The methodology included seeking commitments from stakeholders to implement the selected option(s). Challenges included the complexity of the issues at hand and the need for skilled moderators. Nonetheless, positive outcomes and user feedback confirmed that the DESIRE decision support methodology is an easy-to-use stepwise methodology for facilitating decision-focused participatory processes. Participatory and multi-stakeholder approaches are increasingly motivated by social learning and empowerment goals. Yet there remains a lack of practical tools for facilitating such processes. The research presented here aimed to close the gap between the theory and the practice of stakeholder participation and learning in decision-making processes concerned with SLM. Chapter 6 analyses and describes how the 3-part participatory methodology for selecting SLM options contributed to multi-stakeholder learning. Cross-site analysis and in-depth evaluation of the Moroccan and Portuguese sites were used to evaluate how well the proposed process facilitated stakeholder learning and the selection of appropriate SLM options for local implementation. The structured nature of the process – starting with the joint setting of SLM goals – was found to facilitate mutual understanding and collaboration between stakeholders. The deliberation process led to a high degree of consensus over the outcome and, although this had not been an initial aim, in many cases also fostered social learning. This solution-oriented methodology is applicable in a wide range of contexts and can be implemented with limited time and resources. Chapter 7 presents insights into the field implementation of one of the selected SLM measures in Sehoul, Morocco. The Moroccan DESIRE study site was located near the city of Rabat, in an area where desertification poses a threat to marginal and often stony and degraded slopes. The use of marginal and stony land by the local population had become necessary due to increased poverty and the occupation of the best stretches of land by new owners. The land use change from grazing to cropping caused a deterioration of the field water balance, characterised by increased water loss through runoff, drainage, and evaporation, and resulting in less primary production. Promising experiences with no-tillage practices elsewhere in Morocco had motivated the Moroccan government to promote Conservation Agriculture throughout the country. This combination of crop rotation, minimal soil disturbance, and soil cover maintenance, however, had not yet been tested on sloping degraded land. The field trial results showed that covering the soil with crop residues neither improved yields nor increased rainwater use efficiency, although soil water was generally enhanced. Soil moisture measurements revealed that no-tillage was favourable mainly at soil depths of 5 cm and in connection with low-rainfall events ( circumstances, moisture content was generally higher under no-tillage than under conventional tillage. Moreover, farmers in Sehoul were found to be primarily interested in animal husbandry, and both crop residues and grains were used as feed. Chapter 7 concludes with lessons learnt from the on-farm trials in Sehoul. The synthesis (Chapter 8) offers more detailed reflection on certain key aspects of the research findings, such as the 3-part methodology, monitoring and assessment, stakeholder collaboration and learning, decision support, and desertification mitigation by means of SLM technologies and approaches. This is followed by a review of challenges and limitations of the proposed methodological framework and an assessment of its overall impact. The chapter concludes with an outlook and recommendations. One major conclusion is that research needs to move beyond simply idealising and promoting participatory approaches and learning processes: in addition, researchers must also advocate the provision of time and resources and the establishment of long-term partnerships by both scientific and policymaking bodies. Indepth and long-term field-based research remains important, but it requires sufficient resources and longterm commitment in order to provide adequate evidence. The methodology developed within this thesis is not limited to desertification; it is appropriate and useful for tackling land degradation anywhere in the world and for advancing towards more sustainable decisions on SLM strategies with a higher acceptance among stakeholders. Negotiation of, and deliberation over, ecosystem services might be the key to boosting SLM beyond the local scale, while at the same time compensating land users for their crucial efforts to combat desertification. </p

Visual Assessment of the Impact of Agricultural Management Practices on Soil Quality

The intensification of agricultural practices to increase food and feed outputs is a pressing challenge causing deterioration of soil quality and soil functions. Such a challenge demands provision of empirical evidence to provide context-sensitive guidance on agricultural management practices (AMPs) that may enhance soil quality. The objectives of this study are to identify the most promising AMPs (and their combinations) applied by farmers with the most positive effects on soil quality and to evaluate the sensitivity of the soil quality indicators to the applied AMPs. The effect of selected AMPs on soil quality was assessed using a visual soil assessment tool in a total of 138 pairs of plots spread across 14 study site areas in Europe and China covering representative pedo-climatic zones. The inventory and scoring of soil quality were conducted together with landowners. Results show that 104 pairs show a positive effect of AMPs on soil quality. Higher effects of the AMPs were observed in lower fertile soils (i.e., Podzols and Calcisols) as opposed to higher fertile soils (i.e., Luvisols and Fluvisols). For the single use applications, the AMPs with positive effects were crop rotation; manuring, composting, and no-tillage; followed by organic agriculture and residue maintenance. Cluster analysis showed that the most promising combinations of AMPs with the most positive effects on soil quality are composed of crop rotation, mulching, and min-till. The agreement between scientific skills and empirical knowledge in the field identified by the farmers confirm our findings and ensures their applicability

Assessing the biophysical impact and financial viability of soil management technologies under variable climate in Cabo Verde drylands: the PESERA-DESMICE approach

Field trials have demonstrated the potential of soil conservation technologies but have also shown significant spatial-temporal yield variability. This study considers the PESERA-DESMICE modelling approach to capture a greater range of climatic conditions to assess the potential effect of an improved agricultural management practice emerged from field trials as a promising strategy for enhancing food security and reducing soil and land degradation. The model considers the biophysical and socio-economic benefits of the improved soil conservation technique (T3) - residue mulch combined with pigeon-pea hedges and an organic amendment, against a local baseline practice (T0). The historic rainfall statistics and 50-year rainfall realizations provide a unique time-series of rainfall and an envelope of the potential crop yield. Envelopes of potential biomass production help express the agricultural risk associated with climate variability and the potential of the conservation measures to absorb the risk, highlighting the uncertainty of a given crop yield being achieved in any particular year. T3 elevates yield under both sub-humid and semi-arid climates with greater security for sub-humid areas even though risk of crop failure still exists. The yechnology offered good potential to increase yields by 20% in 42% of the dryland area in Santiago Island and reduce erosion by 8.6-Mg ha-1 , but in terms of cost effectiveness, it might be prohibitively expensive for farmers lacking inputs. The findings can enable the assessment of policy options at larger scale or influence adoption of improved conservation measures under the climatic variability of the Cabo Verde drylands and resilience to future climate change

Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Practices in Drylands: How Do They Address Desertification Threats?

Managing land sustainably is a huge challenge, especially under harsh climatic conditions such as those found in drylands. The socio-economic situation can also pose challenges, as dryland regions are often characterized by remoteness, marginality, low-productive farming, weak institutions, and even conflict. With threats from climate change, disputes over water, competing claims on land, and migration increasing worldwide, the demands for sustainable land management (SLM) measures will only increase in the future. Within the EU-funded DESIRE project, researchers and stakeholders jointly identified existing SLM technologies and approaches in 17 dryland study sites located in the Mediterranean and around the world. In order to evaluate and share this valuable SLM experience, local researchers documented the SLM technologies and approaches in collaboration with land users, utilizing the internationally recognized WOCAT questionnaires. This article provides an analysis of 30 technologies and 8 approaches, enabling an initial evaluation of how SLM addresses prevalent dryland threats, such as water scarcity, soil degradation, vegetation degradation and low production, climate change, resource use conflicts, and migration. Among the impacts attributed to the documented technologies, those mentioned most were diversified and enhanced production and better management of water and soil degradation, whether through water harvesting, improving soil moisture, or reducing runoff. Favorable local-scale cost-benefit relationships were mainly found when considered over the long term. Nevertheless, SLM was found to improve people's livelihoods and prevent further outmigration. More field research is needed to reinforce expert assessments of SLM impacts and provide the necessary evidence-based rationale for investing in SLM

Mapping the impact of SLM - the WOCAT - DESIRE experience

ABSTRACT Since 1992, the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) initiative has developed a standardized method for documentation of Sustainable Land Management (SLM) practices. The resulting on-line database currently counts over 450 technologies and over 350 approaches (implementation strategies) from around 50 countries. WOCAT also developed a tool to map land degradation and conservation. This method complements the information provided by the individual case studies on technologies and approaches. It evaluates what land degradation is occurring where and what is done about. The challenge is now to implement SLM practices that address environmental, economic and social concerns, i.e. decreasing degradation and improving ecosystems, while enhancing agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of land users. Research to show and quantify these impacts of SLM practices and on implementation strategies is undertaken in projects like DESIRE, in which the WOCAT methods and tools were used and further developed, from which results are presented herewith. These showed that land degradation mainly occurred as water erosion on cultivated and mixed land use. Degradation was increasing in most sites, primarily caused by inappropriate soil management. Indirectly, population pressure, insecure land tenure, and poverty appeared to be major causes of degradation. Land degradation negatively affected ecosystem services for almost all degraded areas. High negative impacts were observed regarding regulation of ecosystem services indicating that these require particular attention when developing and implementing remediation strategies. SLM measures appeared most effective on cultivated land, but positive impacts were also recorded for relatively large areas of forest and grazing land. Combinations of SLM measures appeared to perform better than single measures. Overall, there appears to be scope for improving SLM contributions to ecosystem services in cultivated land

Remote sensing combined with social-ecological data: The importance of diverse land uses for ecosystem service provision in north-eastern Madagascar

Through ongoing deforestation in the tropics, forest-related ecosystem services are declining, while ecosystem services provided by agricultural land uses are on the increase. Land system science provides a framework for analysing the links between land use change and the resulting socio-environmental trade-offs. However, the evidence base to support the navigation of such trade-offs is often lacking, as information on land use cannot directly be obtained through remote sensing and census data is often unavailable at sufficient spatial resolution. The global biodiversity hotspot of north-eastern Madagascar exemplifies these challenges. Combining land use data obtained through remote sensing with social-ecological data from a regional level household survey, we attempt to make the links between land use and ecosystem service benefits explicit. Our study confirmed that remotely sensed information on landscapes reflects households’ involvement in rice production systems. We further characterized landscapes in terms of “ecosystem service bundles” linked to specific land uses, as well as in terms of ecosystem service benefits to households. The map of landscape types could help direct future conservation and development efforts towards places where there is potential for success

An applied methodology for stakeholder identification in transdisciplinary research

In this paper we present a novel methodology for identifying stakeholders for the purpose of engaging with them in transdisciplinary, sustainability research projects. In transdisciplinary research, it is important to identify a range of stakeholders prior to the problem-focussed stages of research. Early engagement with diverse stakeholders creates space for them to influence the research process, including problem definition, from the start. However, current stakeholder analysis approaches ignore this initial identification process, or position it within the subsequent content-focussed stages of research. Our methodology was designed as part of a research project into a range of soil threats in seventeen case study locations throughout Europe. Our methodology was designed to be systematic across all sites. It is based on a snowball sampling approach that can be implemented by researchers with no prior experience of stakeholder research, and without requiring significant financial or time resources. It therefore fosters transdisciplinarity by empowering physical scientists to identify stakeholders and understand their roles. We describe the design process and outcomes, and consider their applicability to other research projects. Our methodology therefore consists of a two-phase process of design and implementation of an identification questionnaire. By explicitly including a design phase into the process, it is possible to tailor our methodology to other research projects

Integrating knowledge exchange and the assessment of dryland management alternatives – A learning-centered participatory approach

The adoption of sustainable land management strategies and practices that respond to current climate and human pressures requires both assessment tools that can lead to better informed decision-making and effective knowledge-exchange mechanisms that facilitate new learning and behavior change. We propose a learning-centered participatory approach that links land management assessment and knowledge exchange and integrates science-based data and stakeholder perspectives on both biophysical and socio-economic attributes. We outline a structured procedure for a transparent assessment of land management alternatives, tailored to dryland management, that is based on (1) principles of constructivism and social learning, (2) the participation of stakeholders throughout the whole assessment process, from design to implementation, and (3) the combination of site-specific indicators, identified by local stakeholders as relevant to their particular objectives and context conditions, and science-based indicators that represent ecosystem services of drylands worldwide. The proposed procedure follows a pattern of eliciting, challenging, and self-reviewing stakeholder perspectives that aims to facilitate learning. The difference between the initial baseline perspectives and the final self-reviewed stakeholder perspectives is used as a proxy of learning. We illustrate the potential of this methodology by its application to the assessment of land uses in a Mediterranean fire-prone area in East Spain. The approach may be applied to a variety of socio-ecological systems and decision-making and governance scales.The PRACTICE protocol was developed in the framework of the project PRACTICE: Prevention and Restoration Actions to Combat Desertification. An integrated Assessment, funded by the European Commission (GA226818). This research was also funded by the European project CASCADE (GA283068), and the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions Fellowship of the European Union (GA 629677) “S4S, Science for Society Solutions”, awarded to B.J.O