Mitochondrial Dynamin-Related Protein 1 (DRP1) translocation in response to cerebral glucose is impaired in a rat model of early alteration in hypothalamic glucose sensing

OBJECTIVE: Hypothalamic glucose sensing (HGS) initiates insulin secretion (IS) via a vagal control, participating in energy homeostasis. This requires mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) signaling, dependent on mitochondrial fission, as shown by invalidation of the hypothalamic DRP1 protein. Here, our objectives were to determine whether a model with a HGS defect induced by a short, high fat-high sucrose (HFHS) diet in rats affected the fission machinery and mROS signaling within the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH). METHODS: Rats fed a HFHS diet for 3 weeks were compared with animals fed a normal chow. Both in vitro (calcium imaging) and in vivo (vagal nerve activity recordings) experiments to measure the electrical activity of isolated MBH gluco-sensitive neurons in response to increased glucose level were performed. In parallel, insulin secretion to a direct glucose stimulus in isolated islets vs. insulin secretion resulting from brain glucose stimulation was evaluated. Intra-carotid glucose load-induced hypothalamic DRP1 translocation to mitochondria and mROS (H2O2) production were assessed in both groups. Finally, compound C was intracerebroventricularly injected to block the proposed AMPK-inhibited DRP1 translocation in the MBH to reverse the phenotype of HFHS fed animals. RESULTS: Rats fed a HFHS diet displayed a decreased HGS-induced IS. Responses of MBH neurons to glucose exhibited an alteration of their electrical activity, whereas glucose-induced insulin secretion in isolated islets was not affected. These MBH defects correlated with a decreased ROS signaling and glucose-induced translocation of the fission protein DRP1, as the vagal activity was altered. AMPK-induced inhibition of DRP1 translocation increased in this model, but its reversal through the injection of the compound C, an AMPK inhibitor, failed to restore HGS-induced IS. CONCLUSIONS: A hypothalamic alteration of DRP1-induced fission and mROS signaling in response to glucose was observed in HGS-induced IS of rats exposed to a 3 week HFHS diet. Early hypothalamic modifications of the neuronal activity could participate in a primary defect of the control of IS and ultimately, the development of diabetes.Rôle des connexines astrocytaires dans le mécanisme de détection hypothalamique du glucose : implication sur le contrôle nerveux du métabolisme énergétiqu

Role of apelin on "gut-to brain-to peripheral" axis : consequences in the control of glucose metabolism in normal and obese/diabetic mice

Au début de ce doctorat, plusieurs études avaient identifié l'intestin grêle, siège de l'absorption du glucose, en tant que premier organe impliqué dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie glucidique lors d'un repas. En particulier, il a été démontré que la détection entérique de glucose permettait d'impacter son utilisation par le muscle et le foie, via un relai central impliquant une libération hypothalamique de monoxyde d'azote (NO). De plus, notre groupe a également démontré qu'une altération de la détection entérique du glucose, associée à une réponse neuronale hypothalamique anormale, participait à la mise en place d'un Diabète de Type 2 (DT2). En plus de ces problèmes de détection de nutriments, les patients obèses et diabétiques souffrent de troubles de la motilité intestinale (en particulier d'une hypercontractilité intestinale), liés à une atteinte du Système Nerveux Entérique (SNE). En effet, ce dernier est constitué d'environ 600 millions de neurones interconnectés chez l'Homme, contrôlant les contractions des muscles lisses intestinaux. D'un point de vue régulation, le SNE communique en permanence avec le Système Nerveux Central (SNC) via des voies nerveuses afférentes et efférentes. L'équipe s'intéresse au rôle de l'apeline en tant que nouvelle cible thérapeutique potentielle pour traiter le DT2. En particulier, notre équipe a récemment montré que l'apeline était libérée par les entérocytes dans la partie proximale de l'intestin, et qu'à ce niveau elle contrôlait l'absorption intestinale du glucose. Cependant, le fait que l'apeline puisse également cibler les neurones du SNE, et donc moduler la contractilité intestinale, n'était pas encore démontré. Lors de ce travail de thèse, nous avons ainsi pu montrer qu'en fonction de sa concentration, l'apeline activait des populations neuronales entériques différentes provoquant une stimulation ou, au contraire, une inhibition des contractions duodénales. La stimulation de cette contractilité duodénale par de faibles concentrations d'apeline entraîne une augmentation de l'absorption intestinale de glucose, mais également une diminution de la libération de NO hypothalamique, aboutissant à une moindre utilisation de ce dernier par le muscle squelettique. A l'inverse, de fortes concentrations d'apeline sont associées à une diminution de cette activité duodénale, entraînant un retour de l'ensemble de ces paramètres à des niveaux contrôles. Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu tester si cette motilité duodénale pouvait être considérée comme une cible thérapeutique pour traiter le DT2. Pour cela, nous avons effectué un traitement oral quotidien, pendant une semaine, avec la concentration d'apeline capable de diminuer l'activité duodénale, chez des souris obèses-diabétiques. Cette stimulation chronique par l'apeline permet de restaurer la contractilité duodénale de ces souris diabétiques au même niveau que celle de souris saines. De plus, cet effet est associé à une amélioration de leur tolérance au glucose ainsi que leur index de résistance à l'insuline. Ainsi, ce doctorat a permis de décrire un nouveau mode de communication entre l'intestin et le cerveau dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie glucidique. En effet, moduler les contractions duodénales en modifiant l'activité du SNE permettrait non seulement d'impacter l'absorption intestinale de glucose, mais également d'activer un axe duodénum-hypothalamus aboutissant au contrôle de l'utilisation périphérique de glucose. Dès lors, ce couplage " SNE-contraction duodénale " représenterait une cible thérapeutique prometteuse dans le traitement de maladies métaboliques telles que le DT2.Prior to this PhD, several studies had determined that the small intestine, the site of glucose absorption, is the first organ involved in the control of glucose homeostasis during food intake. In particular, enteric glucose detection has been demonstrated to impact its utilization by muscles and liver, via a central relay involving hypothalamic nitric oxide (NO) release. Moreover, our group has also demonstrated that an alteration of enteric glucose detection, associated with an abnormal hypothalamic neuronal response, participates in type 2 diabetes (T2D) development. In addition to these defaults of nutrients detection, obese and diabetic patients suffer from intestinal motility disorders (in particular intestinal hypercontractility), linked to an alteration of the Enteric Nervous System (ENS). The ENS is composed of 600 million interconnected neurons in humans, known to control intestinal smooth muscles. The ENS permanently communicates with the Central Nervous System (CNS) via afferent and efferent nervous messages. Our team studies the role of apelin as a new potential therapeutic target to treat T2D. In this context, our group has recently demonstrated that apelin is released by the enterocytes in the proximal part of the intestine. At this site, apelin controls intestinal absorption of glucose. However, it hadn't been addressed yet whether apelin is also able to target enteric neurons, and consequently modulate intestinal contractility. During this PhD, we have highlighted that, depending of its concentration, apelin activates different enteric neuronal populations, leading to stimulation or, on the contrary, inhibition of duodenal contractions. Stimulation of this duodenal contractility by low concentrations of apelin causes an increase in intestinal glucose absorption, but also a decrease in hypothalamic NO release, leading to a reduced utilization of glucose by skeletal muscle. Conversely, high concentrations of apelin are associated with a decrease in the duodenal activity, leading to the restoration of all these parameters at basal levels. Then, we wanted to test whether duodenal motility could be considered as a therapeutic target to treat T2D. We performed a daily oral treatment, during one week, with the concentration of apelin able to decrease duodenal activity in obese and diabetic mice. We have shown that this chronic apelin treatment restores duodenal contractility in diabetic mice, at a similar level to that observed in normal mice. Moreover, this effect is associated with an improved glucose tolerance and insulin resistance index. Thus, this PhD describes a new mode of communication between the intestine and the brain, in the control of glucose homeostasis. Indeed, the modulation of duodenal contraction by targeting ENS activity could not only impact intestinal glucose absorption, but also activate a duodenum-hypothalamus axis, leading to the control of peripheral glucose utilization. Consequently, the "ENS-duodenal contraction" coupling could represent a promising therapeutic target to treat metabolic diseases such as T2D

Rôle de l'apeline dans le contrôle de l'axe "intestin-hypothalamus-périphérie" : conséquences sur le métabolisme glucidique chez la souris normale et obèse/diabétique

Prior to this PhD, several studies had determined that the small intestine, the site of glucose absorption, is the first organ involved in the control of glucose homeostasis during food intake. In particular, enteric glucose detection has been demonstrated to impact its utilization by muscles and liver, via a central relay involving hypothalamic nitric oxide (NO) release. Moreover, our group has also demonstrated that an alteration of enteric glucose detection, associated with an abnormal hypothalamic neuronal response, participates in type 2 diabetes (T2D) development. In addition to these defaults of nutrients detection, obese and diabetic patients suffer from intestinal motility disorders (in particular intestinal hypercontractility), linked to an alteration of the Enteric Nervous System (ENS). The ENS is composed of 600 million interconnected neurons in humans, known to control intestinal smooth muscles. The ENS permanently communicates with the Central Nervous System (CNS) via afferent and efferent nervous messages. Our team studies the role of apelin as a new potential therapeutic target to treat T2D. In this context, our group has recently demonstrated that apelin is released by the enterocytes in the proximal part of the intestine. At this site, apelin controls intestinal absorption of glucose. However, it hadn't been addressed yet whether apelin is also able to target enteric neurons, and consequently modulate intestinal contractility. During this PhD, we have highlighted that, depending of its concentration, apelin activates different enteric neuronal populations, leading to stimulation or, on the contrary, inhibition of duodenal contractions. Stimulation of this duodenal contractility by low concentrations of apelin causes an increase in intestinal glucose absorption, but also a decrease in hypothalamic NO release, leading to a reduced utilization of glucose by skeletal muscle. Conversely, high concentrations of apelin are associated with a decrease in the duodenal activity, leading to the restoration of all these parameters at basal levels. Then, we wanted to test whether duodenal motility could be considered as a therapeutic target to treat T2D. We performed a daily oral treatment, during one week, with the concentration of apelin able to decrease duodenal activity in obese and diabetic mice. We have shown that this chronic apelin treatment restores duodenal contractility in diabetic mice, at a similar level to that observed in normal mice. Moreover, this effect is associated with an improved glucose tolerance and insulin resistance index. Thus, this PhD describes a new mode of communication between the intestine and the brain, in the control of glucose homeostasis. Indeed, the modulation of duodenal contraction by targeting ENS activity could not only impact intestinal glucose absorption, but also activate a duodenum-hypothalamus axis, leading to the control of peripheral glucose utilization. Consequently, the "ENS-duodenal contraction" coupling could represent a promising therapeutic target to treat metabolic diseases such as T2D.Au début de ce doctorat, plusieurs études avaient identifié l'intestin grêle, siège de l'absorption du glucose, en tant que premier organe impliqué dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie glucidique lors d'un repas. En particulier, il a été démontré que la détection entérique de glucose permettait d'impacter son utilisation par le muscle et le foie, via un relai central impliquant une libération hypothalamique de monoxyde d'azote (NO). De plus, notre groupe a également démontré qu'une altération de la détection entérique du glucose, associée à une réponse neuronale hypothalamique anormale, participait à la mise en place d'un Diabète de Type 2 (DT2). En plus de ces problèmes de détection de nutriments, les patients obèses et diabétiques souffrent de troubles de la motilité intestinale (en particulier d'une hypercontractilité intestinale), liés à une atteinte du Système Nerveux Entérique (SNE). En effet, ce dernier est constitué d'environ 600 millions de neurones interconnectés chez l'Homme, contrôlant les contractions des muscles lisses intestinaux. D'un point de vue régulation, le SNE communique en permanence avec le Système Nerveux Central (SNC) via des voies nerveuses afférentes et efférentes. L'équipe s'intéresse au rôle de l'apeline en tant que nouvelle cible thérapeutique potentielle pour traiter le DT2. En particulier, notre équipe a récemment montré que l'apeline était libérée par les entérocytes dans la partie proximale de l'intestin, et qu'à ce niveau elle contrôlait l'absorption intestinale du glucose. Cependant, le fait que l'apeline puisse également cibler les neurones du SNE, et donc moduler la contractilité intestinale, n'était pas encore démontré. Lors de ce travail de thèse, nous avons ainsi pu montrer qu'en fonction de sa concentration, l'apeline activait des populations neuronales entériques différentes provoquant une stimulation ou, au contraire, une inhibition des contractions duodénales. La stimulation de cette contractilité duodénale par de faibles concentrations d'apeline entraîne une augmentation de l'absorption intestinale de glucose, mais également une diminution de la libération de NO hypothalamique, aboutissant à une moindre utilisation de ce dernier par le muscle squelettique. A l'inverse, de fortes concentrations d'apeline sont associées à une diminution de cette activité duodénale, entraînant un retour de l'ensemble de ces paramètres à des niveaux contrôles. Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu tester si cette motilité duodénale pouvait être considérée comme une cible thérapeutique pour traiter le DT2. Pour cela, nous avons effectué un traitement oral quotidien, pendant une semaine, avec la concentration d'apeline capable de diminuer l'activité duodénale, chez des souris obèses-diabétiques. Cette stimulation chronique par l'apeline permet de restaurer la contractilité duodénale de ces souris diabétiques au même niveau que celle de souris saines. De plus, cet effet est associé à une amélioration de leur tolérance au glucose ainsi que leur index de résistance à l'insuline. Ainsi, ce doctorat a permis de décrire un nouveau mode de communication entre l'intestin et le cerveau dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie glucidique. En effet, moduler les contractions duodénales en modifiant l'activité du SNE permettrait non seulement d'impacter l'absorption intestinale de glucose, mais également d'activer un axe duodénum-hypothalamus aboutissant au contrôle de l'utilisation périphérique de glucose. Dès lors, ce couplage " SNE-contraction duodénale " représenterait une cible thérapeutique prometteuse dans le traitement de maladies métaboliques telles que le DT2

Impact of hypothalamic reactive oxygen species in the regulation of energy metabolism and food intake

Hypothalamus is a key area involved in the control of metabolism and food intake via the integrations of numerous signals (hormones, neurotransmitters, metabolites) from various origins. These factors modify hypothalamic neurons activity and generate adequate molecular and behavioral responses to control energy balance. In this complex integrative system, a new concept has been developed in recent years, that includes reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a critical player in energy balance. ROS are known to act in many signaling pathways in different peripheral organs, but also in hypothalamus where they regulate food intake and metabolism by acting on different types of neurons, including proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and agouti-related protein (AgRP)/neuropeptide Y (NPY) neurons. Hypothalamic ROS release is under the influence of different factors such as pancreatic and gut hormones, adipokines (leptin, apelin,...), neurotransmitters and nutrients (glucose, lipids,...). The sources of ROS production are multiple including NADPH oxidase, but also the mitochondria which is considered as the main ROS producer in the brain. ROS are considered as signaling molecules, but conversely impairment of this neuronal signaling ROS pathway contributes to alterations of autonomic nervous system and neuroendocrine function, leading to metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.In this review we focus our attention on factors that are able to modulate hypothalamic ROS release in order to control food intake and energy metabolism, and whose deregulations could participate to the development of pathological conditions. This novel insight reveals an original mechanism in the hypothalamus that controls energy balance and identify hypothalamic ROS signaling as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat metabolic disorders

Glucosensing in the gastrointestinal tract: Impact on glucose metabolism.

The gastrointestinal tract is an important interface of exchange between ingested food and the body. Glucose is one of the major dietary sources of energy. All along the gastrointestinal tube, e.g., the oral cavity, small intestine, pancreas, and portal vein, specialized cells referred to as glucosensors detect variations in glucose levels. In response to this glucose detection, these cells send hormonal and neuronal messages to tissues involved in glucose metabolism to regulate glycemia. The gastrointestinal tract continuously communicates with the brain, especially with the hypothalamus, via the gut-brain axis. It is now well established that the cross talk between the gut and the brain is of crucial importance in the control of glucose homeostasis. In addition to receiving glucosensing information from the gut, the hypothalamus may also directly sense glucose. Indeed, the hypothalamus contains glucose-sensitive cells that regulate glucose homeostasis by sending signals to peripheral tissues via the autonomous nervous system. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which glucosensors along the gastrointestinal tract detect glucose, as well as the results of such detection in the whole body, including the hypothalamus. We also highlight how disturbances in the glucosensing process may lead to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. A better understanding of the pathways regulating glucose homeostasis will further facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of metabolic diseases

Glucosensing in the gastrointestinal tract: Impact on glucose metabolism

The gastrointestinal tract is an important interface of exchange between ingested food and the body. Glucose is one of the major dietary sources of energy. All along the gastrointestinal tube, e.g., the oral cavity, small intestine, pancreas, and portal vein, specialized cells referred to as glucosensors detect variations in glucose levels. In response to this glucose detection, these cells send hormonal and neuronal messages to tissues involved in glucose metabolism to regulate glycemia. The gastrointestinal tract continuously communicates with the brain, especially with the hypothalamus, via the gut-brain axis. It is now well established that the cross talk between the gut and the brain is of crucial importance in the control of glucose homeostasis. In addition to receiving glucosensing information from the gut, the hypothalamus may also directly sense glucose. Indeed, the hypothalamus contains glucose-sensitive cells that regulate glucose homeostasis by sending signals to peripheral tissues via the autonomous nervous system. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which glucosensors along the gastrointestinal tract detect glucose, as well as the results of such detection in the whole body, including the hypothalamus. We also highlight how disturbances in the glucosensing process may lead to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. A better understanding of the pathways regulating glucose homeostasis will further facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of metabolic diseases.status: publishe

Galanin enhances systemic glucose metabolism through enteric Nitric Oxide Synthase-expressed neurons.

Objective: Decreasing duodenal contraction is now considered as a major focus for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Therefore, identifying bioactive molecules able to target the enteric nervous system, which controls the motility of intestinal smooth muscle cells, represents a new therapeutic avenue. For this reason, we chose to study the impact of oral galanin on this system in diabetic mice. Methods: Enteric neurotransmission, duodenal contraction, glucose absorption, modification of gutebrain axis, and glucose metabolism (glucose tolerance, insulinemia, glucose entry in tissue, hepatic glucose metabolism) were assessed. Results: We show that galanin, a neuropeptide expressed in the small intestine, decreases duodenal contraction by stimulating nitric oxide release from enteric neurons. This is associated with modification of hypothalamic nitric oxide release that favors glucose uptake in metabolic tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. Oral chronic gavage with galanin in diabetic mice increases insulin sensitivity, which is associated with an improvement of several metabolic parameters such as glucose tolerance, fasting blood glucose, and insulin. Conclusion: Here, we demonstrate that oral galanin administration improves glucose homeostasis via the enteric nervous system and could be considered a therapeutic potential for the treatment of T2D

Apelin targets gut contraction to control glucose metabolism via the brain

OBJECTIVE: The gut-brain axis is considered as a major regulatory checkpoint in the control of glucose homeostasis. The detection of nutrients and/or hormones in the duodenum informs the hypothalamus of the host's nutritional state. This process may occur via hypothalamic neurons modulating central release of nitric oxide (NO), which in turn controls glucose entry into tissues. The enteric nervous system (ENS) modulates intestinal contractions in response to various stimuli, but the importance of this interaction in the control of glucose homeostasis via the brain is unknown. We studied whether apelin, a bioactive peptide present in the gut, regulates ENS-evoked contractions, thereby identifying a new physiological partner in the control of glucose utilisation via the hypothalamus. DESIGN: We measured the effect of apelin on electrical and mechanical duodenal responses via telemetry probes and isotonic sensors in normal and obese/diabetic mice. Changes in hypothalamic NO release, in response to duodenal contraction modulated by apelin, were evaluated in real time with specific amperometric probes. Glucose utilisation in tissues was measured with orally administrated radiolabeled glucose. RESULTS: In normal and obese/diabetic mice, glucose utilisation is improved by the decrease of ENS/contraction activities in response to apelin, which generates an increase in hypothalamic NO release. As a consequence, glucose entry is significantly increased in the muscle. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we identify a novel mode of communication between the intestine and the hypothalamus that controls glucose utilisation. Moreover, our data identified oral apelin administration as a novel potential target to treat metabolic disorders

Central chronic apelin infusion decreases energy expenditure and thermogenesis in mice

Apelin is a bioactive peptide involved in the control of energy metabolism. In the hypothalamus, chronic exposure to high levels of apelin is associated with an increase in hepatic glucose production, and then contributes to the onset of type 2 diabetes. However, the molecular mechanisms behind deleterious effects of chronic apelin in the brain and consequences on energy expenditure and thermogenesis are currently unknown. We aimed to evaluate the effects of chronic intracerebroventricular (icv) infusion of apelin in normal mice on hypothalamic inflammatory gene expression, energy expenditure, thermogenesis and brown adipose tissue functions. We have shown that chronic icv infusion of apelin increases the expression of pro-inflammatory factors in the hypothalamus associated with an increase in plasma interleukin-1 beta. In parallel, mice infused with icv apelin exhibit a significant lower energy expenditure coupled to a decrease in PGC1alpha, PRDM16 and UCP1 expression in brown adipose tissue which could explain the alteration of thermogenesis in these mice. These data provide compelling evidence that central apelin contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes by altering energy expenditure, thermogenesis and fat browning