The Role of Social Capital in Influencing the Response Capacity of Farmers to Bovine Tuberculosis

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is one of the principal concerns currently facing the livestock industry in England. The disease has spread dramatically in recent years and is costing the country millions of pounds each year. Tens of thousands of cattle are being slaughtered annually; a huge financial and emotional burden to affected farmers. While various measures to control the disease have been taken, none have been successful in bringing it under control. Instead bTB continues to spread unabated. The essence of the bTB problem is that it necessitates industry buy-in in order to implement disease control measures. It is therefore not simply an issue of regulation. Current government bTB control policy emphasises communication and cooperative working across the government and the farming industry, coupled with cost and responsibility sharing. However, previous studies have shown that relationships between farmers and the government are already strained, engendered by a sense of distrust and a lack of confidence. Although some social science work has been conducted within the field of disease control and particularly bTB, the majority focuses on farmers‘ attitudes towards government policy and disease control. However, in order to implement successful disease control measures it is necessary to explore the ways in which farmers currently respond to bTB, and how their responses may be recognised by, and incorporated into, successful policy. While previous research has identified the important role of the wider social context in influencing farmers‘ attitudes and behaviour, no studies have yet provided an in-depth analysis of farmers‘ social networks in relation to bTB. In response, this study uses the lens of social capital to explore the various social ties which enhance or constrain farmers‘ capacity to respond to bTB. An iterative, mixed methods approach is adopted across two phases of research. The first incorporates twenty in-depth qualitative farmer interviews, exploring various aspects of bTB risk and response strategies as well as the core features of social capital. This informs a second, quantitative phase, in which data are iii gathered through a self-completion postal survey of 374 farmers in the South West of England. A farmer segmentation model is developed using factor and cluster analysis and two farmer groups are identified. The first group represents vulnerable farmers who are concerned about the negative impacts of bTB, and who are internally focused with respect to their networks. Characteristically, they exhibit strong relationships with others from within the farming community. In comparison, the second group are more resilient and less concerned about the impacts of bTB on their farm business. These farmers are externally focused, mainly seeking information from the government, the National Farmers‘ Union and their vet. The role of various forms of social capital is explored and an important distinction between the two farmer groups is found. Vulnerable farmers tend to be members of close networks of other farmers (bonding social capital), while resilient farmers are more likely to enjoy positive relationships with those from outside the farming community including vets (bridging social capital) and the government (linking social capital). However, while the research findings suggest that bridging and linking social capital can positively influence farmers‘ attitudes towards bTB, they do not necessarily lead to positive disease control behaviour. Statistical analysis of the data reveals no significant differences between the farmer groups in terms of their uptake of biosecurity measures, which represents an important disease avoidance strategy. A disjuncture between farmers‘ attitudes and their behaviour is therefore identified. The research concludes that investment in social capital between the government and farmers should form a core area of policy through providing opportunities for consistent and regular contact, allowing for the development of trusting and productive relationships. The current situation, characterised by low levels of trust and limited uptake of recommended disease control measures by farmers, indicates incoherence with contemporary policy discourses. A better understanding of the role of social capital in influencing farmer attitudes and behaviour will enable policy makers to increase the ability of farmers to respond to bTB risk, either through disease avoidance or through more effective management and coping mechanisms

Badger vaccination: dimensions of trust and confidence in the governance of animal disease

This paper analyses the acceptance of new technologies to manage environmental risks. In the management of animal disease, lack of trust in Government is seen as a key factor in explaining farmers’ resistance to new biosecurity technologies and practices to help prevent disease. However, the conceptual dimensions of trust are frequently loosely defined meaning that it is unclear how trust, as well as other factors, are related to the acceptance of new animal disease technologies. This paper explores the dimensions of farmers’ trust in relation to the use of vaccines to manage animal disease, and the extent to which different dimensions of trust are linked to vaccine confidence. The paper examines the introduction of a vaccine to help prevent the spread of bovine tuberculosis between wildlife (specifically badgers) and cattle in England. Drawing on findings from a telephone survey of 339 farmers and in-depth interviews with a sub-sample of 65, the paper explores attitudes towards, and levels of acceptance of, badger vaccination amongst farmers across five study areas with varying levels of disease. Results reveal low levels of confidence in badger vaccine and trust in Government to manage bovine tuberculosis. Principal components analysis identifies three specific dimensions to trust which, along with farmers’ perceived self-efficacy, the perceived threat of disease, and faith in others to manage disease, are all significantly related to farmers’ confidence in badger vaccination. The paper concludes by considering the challenges facing policy makers in attempting to ensure that animal disease technologies match the social and ecological landscapes for which they are intended

Immune Response in Women during Exercise in the Heat: A Spotlight on Oral Contraception

This study compared the immune and stress response of oral contraceptive users (WomenOC; n = 9) to normally-menstruating women (WomenNM; n = 9) at rest and during exercise in temperate (TEMP; 22°C) and hot (HEAT; 35°C) conditions. Participants performed a 3-stage cycling trial in each condition at 90% (Stage 1; 30 min), 135% (Stage 2; 15 min), and 180% (Stage 3; 7.5 min) of lactate threshold 1. C-reactive protein (CRP) and immune cell counts were measured at rest, and serum cytokines (IL-1β, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and TNF-α) and salivary cortisol were evaluated before and after exercise in both the TEMP and HEAT conditions. There were no differences in resting immune cell counts between groups, nor any differences in cortisol or any of the pro- or anti-inflammatory cytokines measured at rest or after completion of the exercise trials (p > 0.05). However, a trend for a higher resting CRP concentration was observed in WomenOC relative to WomenNM (1.102 ± 1.182 and 0.326 ± 0.228, respectively, p = 0.07). The results obtained in the current study indicate similar immunoendocrine function in WomenOC and WomenNM both at rest and after exercise in temperate and hot environments

Delivery of a Mental Health First Aid training package and staff peer support service in secondary schools: a process evaluation of uptake and fidelity of the WISE intervention.

BACKGROUND: Improving children and young people's provision for mental health is a current health priority in England. Secondary school teachers have worse mental health outcomes than the general working population, which the Wellbeing in Secondary Education (WISE) cluster randomised controlled trial aimed to improve. The WISE intervention comprised a Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) training package delivered to at least 16% of staff, a short mental health awareness session to all teachers and development of a staff peer support service. Twenty-five schools were randomised to intervention or control arms. This paper reports findings regarding the extent of uptake and fidelity of the intervention. METHODS: Mixed methods data collection comprised researcher observations of training delivery, training participant evaluation forms, trainer and peer supporter interviews, peer supporter feedback meetings, logs of support provided, and teacher questionnaires. Quantitative data were summarised descriptively, while thematic analysis was applied to the qualitative data. RESULTS: In the 12 schools assigned to the intervention arm, 113 (8.6%) staff completed the 2-day standard MHFA training course, and a further 146 (11.1%) staff completed the 1-day MHFA for schools and colleges training. In seven (58.3%) schools, the required 8% of staff completed the MHFA training packages. A 1-h mental health awareness-raising session was attended by 666 (54.5%) staff. Delivery of the MHFA training package was achieved with high levels of fidelity and quality across schools. All schools set up the peer support service following training, with a majority adhering to most of the operational guidelines developed from the pilot study at the outset. Teachers reported limited use of the peer support service during follow-up. At the 1-year follow-up, only three (25.0%) schools indicated they had re-advertised the service and there was evidence of a reduction in support from senior leadership. CONCLUSION: The MHFA training package was delivered with reasonably high fidelity, and a staff peer support service was established with general, but not complete, adherence to guidelines. In some schools, insufficient staff received MHFA training and levels of delivery of the peer support service compromised intervention dose and reach. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN 95909211 . Registered on 15 January 2016

An intervention to improve teacher well-being support and training to support students in UK high schools (the WISE study): A cluster randomised controlled trial.

Funder: Public Health WalesFunder: Bristol City CouncilFunder: Public Health EnglandBACKGROUND: Teachers are at heightened risk of poor mental health and well-being, which is likely to impact on the support they provide to students, and student outcomes. We conducted a cluster randomised controlled trial, to test whether an intervention to improve mental health support and training for high school teachers led to improved mental health and well-being for teachers and students, compared to usual practice. We also conducted a cost evaluation of the intervention. METHODS AND FINDINGS: The intervention comprised (i) Mental Health First Aid training for teachers to support students; (ii) a mental health awareness session; and (iii) a confidential staff peer support service. In total 25 mainstream, non-fee-paying secondary schools stratified by geographical area and free school meal entitlement were randomly allocated to intervention (n = 12) or control group (n = 13) after collection of baseline measures. We analysed data using mixed-effects repeated measures models in the intention-to-treat population, adjusted for stratification variables, sex, and years of experience. The primary outcome was teacher well-being (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale). Secondary outcomes were teacher depression, absence, and presenteeism, and student well-being, mental health difficulties, attendance, and attainment. Follow-up was at months 12 (T1) and 24 (T2). We collected process data to test the logic model underpinning the intervention, to aid interpretation of the findings. A total of 1,722 teachers were included in the primary analysis. Teacher well-being did not differ between groups at T2 (intervention mean well-being score 47.5, control group mean well-being score 48.4, adjusted mean difference -0.90, 95% CI -2.07 to 0.27, p = 0.130). The only effect on secondary outcomes was higher teacher-reported absence among the intervention group at T2 (intervention group median number of days absent 0, control group median number of days absent 0, ratio of geometric means 1.04, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.09, p = 0.042). Process measures indicated little change in perceived mental health support, quality of relationships, and work-related stress. The average cost of the intervention was £9,103 per school. The study's main limitations were a lack of blinding of research participants and the self-report nature of the outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we observed no improvements to teacher or student mental health following the intervention, possibly due to a lack of impact on key drivers of poor mental health within the school environment. Future research should focus on structural and cultural changes to the school environment, which may be more effective at improving teacher and student mental health and well-being. TRIAL REGISTRATION: www.isrctn.com ISRCTN95909211

The Potential Impact on Farmer Health of Enhanced Export Horticultural Trade between the U.K. and Uganda

The export of vegetables from African countries to European markets presents consumers with an ethical dilemma: should they support local, but relatively well-off farmers, or poorer farmers from distant countries? This paper considers the issue of farm worker health in the U.K. and Uganda, and considers the dilemma facing U.K. consumers if Uganda achieves their aim of exporting more vegetables to the U.K. Self-reported health scores of 1,200 farm workers in the U.K. and Uganda were measured with the internationally recognised SF-36 questionnaire and compared to an international population norm. The age-corrected health status of U.K. farm workers was significantly lower than the population norm, whereas Ugandans scored significantly higher (indicating good health) for physical health and lower for mental health. If Ugandan produce enters U.K. markets, then consumers may wish to consider both the potential benefits that enhanced trade could offer Ugandan farmers compared with its impacts on U.K. workers

An assessment of risk compensation and spillover behavioural adaptions associated with the use of vaccines in animal disease management

This paper analyses farmers’ behavioural responses to Government attempts to reduce the risk of disease transmission from badgers to cattle through badger vaccination. Evidence for two opposing behavioural adaptions is examined in response to the vaccination of badgers to reduce the risk of transmission to farmed cattle. Risk compensation theory suggests that interventions that reduce risk, such as vaccination, are counterbalanced by negative behavioural adaptions. By contrast, the spillover effect suggests that interventions can prompt further positive behaviours. The paper uses data from a longitudinal mixed methods study of farmers’ attitudes to badger vaccination to prevent the spread of bovine tuberculosis, their reports of biosecurity practices, and cattle movement data in 5 areas of England, one of which experienced badger vaccination. Analysis finds limited evidence of spillover behaviours following vaccination. Lack of spillover is attributed to farmers’ beliefs in the effectiveness of biosecurity and the lack of similarity between badger vaccination and vaccination for other animal diseases. Risk compensation behaviours are associated with farmers’ beliefs as to who should manage animal disease. Rather than farmers’ belief in vaccine effectiveness, it is more likely that farmers’ low sense of being able to do anything to prevent disease influences their apparent risk compensation behaviours. These findings address the gap in the literature relating to farmers' behavioural adaptions to vaccine use in the management of animal disease